This article is about the celibate. For other uses, see Europe ( disambiguation )
Europe is a landmass variously recognised as character of Eurasia or a continent in its own right, located wholly in the Northern Hemisphere and largely in the Eastern Hemisphere. It comprises the westernmost peninsula of the continental landmass of Eurasia, [ 10 ] it shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Asia and Africa, and is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and Asia to the east. Europe is normally considered to be separated from Asia by the river basin of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea and the waterways of the turkish Straits. [ 11 ] Although much of this border is over domain, Europe is about always recognised as its own celibate because of its bang-up forcible size and the weight unit of its history and traditions.
Reading: Europe – Wikipedia
Europe covers about 10.18 million km2 ( 3.93 million sq mi ), or 2 % of the Earth ‘s surface ( 6.8 % of domain area ), making it the second-smallest celibate ( using the seven-continent model ). politically, Europe is divided into about fifty dollar bill sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39 % of the continent and comprising 15 % of its population. Europe had a full population of about 746 million ( about 10 % of the world population ) in 2018. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] The european climate is largely affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the celibate, tied at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more obtrusive than close to the coast. european culture is the root of western refinement, which traces its linage rear to ancient Greece and ancient Rome. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and the subsequent Migration Period marked the end of Europe ‘s ancient history, and the get down of the Middle Ages. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art and skill led to the modern earned run average. Since the Age of Discovery, started by Portugal and Spain, Europe played a overriding character in global affairs. Between the 16th and twentieth centuries, european powers colonised at respective times the Americas, about all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Asia. The Age of Enlightenment, the subsequent french Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the celibate culturally, politically and economically from the end of the seventeenth hundred until the foremost half of the nineteenth hundred. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the eighteenth century, gave emanation to revolutionary economic, cultural and social change in Western Europe and finally the wide-eyed populace. Both global wars took place for the most region in Europe, contributing to a decline in western european authority in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence. [ 14 ] During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, until the revolutions of 1989, hang of the Berlin Wall and the adjournment of the Soviet Union. In 1949, the Council of Europe was founded with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals and prevent future wars. farther european integration by some states led to the constitution of the European Union ( EU ), a separate political entity that lies between a confederation and a confederation. [ 15 ] The EU originated in western Europe but has been expanding east since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The currency of most countries of the European Union, the euro, is the most normally used among Europeans ; and the EU ‘s Schengen Area abolishes border, and immigration controls between most of its member states and some non-member states. There exists a political motion favouring the evolution of the European Union into a single confederation encompassing much of the celibate .
name
In authoritative Greek mythology, Europa ( Ancient Greek : Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē ) was a phoenician princess. One see is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς ( eurús ) ‘wide, broad ‘, and ὤψ ( ōps, gen. ὠπός, ōpós ) ‘eye, face, sanction ‘, hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean ‘wide-gazing ‘ or ‘broad of aspect ‘. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the restore Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. [ 16 ] An alternate view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favor of a Pre-Indo-European origin for the diagnose, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different place name than Europa. Beekes has located place name related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia. [ 20 ] There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a semite term for west, this being either akkadian erebu mean ‘to go down, set ‘ ( said of the sun ) or phoenician ‘ereb ‘evening, west ‘, [ 21 ] which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma’arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that “ phonologically, the equal between Europa ‘s diagnose and any form of the Semitic bible is very inadequate ”, [ 22 ] while Beekes considers a association to Semitic languages improbable. [ 20 ] Most major global languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. taiwanese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu ( 歐洲/欧洲 ), which is an abbreviation of the transliterate name Ōuluóbā zhōu ( 歐羅巴洲 ) ( zhōu means “ continent ” ) ; a alike Chinese-derived term Ōshū ( 欧州 ) is besides sometimes used in japanese such as in the japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō ( 欧州連合 ), despite the katakana Yōroppa ( ヨーロッパ ) being more normally used. In some Turkic languages, the originally iranian name Frangistan ( ‘land of the Franks ‘ ) is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa. [ 23 ]
definition
contemporary definition
The prevailing definition of Europe as a geographic term has been in use since the mid-19th hundred. Europe is taken to be bounded by big bodies of water system to the north, west and south ; Europe ‘s limits to the east and north-east are normally taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the caspian Sea ; to the southeast, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. [ 25 ]
Islands are broadly grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is normally assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia ( or Asia Minor ), but is considered separate of Europe politically and it is a member country of the EU. Malta was considered an island of Northwest Africa for centuries, but nowadays it is considered to be depart of Europe as well. [ 26 ] ” Europe ”, as used specifically in british English, may besides refer to Continental Europe entirely. [ 27 ] The condition “ celibate ” normally implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or about completely surrounded by water system at its borders. however, the Europe-Asia share of the surround is reasonably arbitrary and discrepant with this definition because of its partial derivative adhesiveness to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains quite than a series of partially joined waterways suggested by cartographer Herman Moll in 1715. These water divides extend with a few relatively minor interruptions ( compared to the aforesaid mountain ranges ) from the turkish straits running into the Mediterranean Sea to the upper separate of the Ob River that drains into the Arctic Ocean. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes batch divides, the frame between Europe and Asia had been redefined respective times since its first invention in classical music antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an nameless distance east and union from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. The current division of Eurasia into two continents nowadays reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a astute separate line. The geographic bound between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of urine. turkey is generally considered a transcontinental state divided wholly by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partially divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom are besides transcontinental ( or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or big seas are involved ) in that their main country areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on early continents separated from Europe by big bodies of water. Spain, for case, has territories south of the Mediterranean Sea namely Ceuta and Melilla which are parts of Africa, and contribution a border with Morocco. According to the current conventionality, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been wholly replaced by mountains as the separate between continents .
history of the concept
early on history
Europa regina (‘Queen Europe’) in 1582 delineation of ( ‘Queen Europe ‘ ) in 1582 The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the westerly shore of the Aegean Sea. As a name for a character of the known worldly concern, it is foremost used in the sixth century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the limit between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River ( the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia ) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. [ 28 ] Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by strange persons into three parts, Europe, Asia and Libya ( Africa ), with the Nile and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he besides states that some considered the River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia. [ 29 ] Europe ‘s easterly frontier was defined in the first hundred by geographer Strabo at the River Don. [ 30 ] The Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons ; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia. [ 31 ] The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern use is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as Posidonius, [ 32 ] Strabo [ 33 ] and Ptolemy, [ 34 ] who took the Tanais ( the advanced Don River ) as the boundary. The term “ Europe ” is first used for a cultural sphere in the carolingian Renaissance of the ninth hundred. From that time, the term designated the celestial sphere of influence of the western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic earth. A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the eighth century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin acculturation, defined partially in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the british Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy. [ 35 ] The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the carolingian Renaissance : Europa often [ dubious – discuss ] figures in the letters of Charlemagne ‘s court learner, Alcuin. [ 36 ]
modern definitions
A New Map of Europe According to the Newest Observations (1721) by Hermann Moll draws the eastern boundary of Europe along the Don River flowing south-west and the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north ( 1721 ) by Hermann Moll draws the eastern limit of Europe along the Don River flowing southwest and the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north
1916 political map of Europe showing most of Moll ‘s waterways replaced by von Strahlenberg ‘s Ural Mountains and Freshfield ‘s Caucasus Crest, state features of a type that normally defines a subcontinent The doubt of defining a accurate easterly boundary of Europe arises in the early Modern period, as the eastern propagation of Muscovy began to include North Asia. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the eighteenth hundred, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don ( ancient Tanais ). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the limit beyond the Don flex at Kalach-na-Donu ( where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal ), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers. Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern contribution of the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the former, as components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the limit between Europe and Asia from the turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read. however, his mind to use major rivers about entirely as the agate line of limit was never taken up by other geographers. Four years by and by, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first gear to depart from the classical Don boundary by proposing that batch ranges could be included as boundaries between continents whenever there were deemed to be no suitable waterways, the Ob and Irtysh rivers notwithstanding. He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt ( the drain divide between Volga and Ural ), and then north along Ural Mountains. [ 37 ] This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the conventionality that would finally become normally accept, but not without criticism by many modern analytic geographers like Halford Mackinder who saw little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents. [ 38 ] The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the nineteenth century. The 1745 atlas published by the russian Academy of Sciences has the limit follow the Don beyond Kalach american samoa army for the liberation of rwanda as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg ‘s prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified circa 1773 by a german naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and subsequently was proposed as a natural limit between continents. By the mid-19th hundred, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third base abandoning the Don raw, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was hush treated as a “ controversy ” in geographic literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus peak boundary as the “ best possible ”, citing support from respective “ modern geographers ”. [ 41 ] In Russia and the Soviet Union, the limit along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most normally used equally early as 1906. [ 42 ] In 1958, the soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the limit between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River ; and Kuma–Manych Depression, [ 43 ] frankincense placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals wholly in Europe. [ 44 ] however, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest, [ 45 ] and this became the coarse convention in the belated twentieth century, although the Kuma–Manych limit remained in manipulation in some 20th-century maps. Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a remainder of eurocentrism : “ In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire european landmass, not to a individual european country. [ … ]. ”
history
prehistory
c. 15,000 BCE) Paleolithic cave paintings from Lascaux in France 15,000 BCE ) Homo erectus georgicus, which lived approximately 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe. [ 47 ] other hominin remains, dating back approximately 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain. [ 48 ] Neanderthal world ( named after the Neandertal valley in Germany ) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago ( 115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of contemporary Poland [ 49 ] ) and disappeared from the fossil criminal record about 28,000 years ago, with their final examination safety being contemporary Portugal. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans ( Cro-Magnons ), who appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago. [ 50 ] The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi ( Italy ), Geissenklösterle ( Germany ) and Isturitz ( France ). [ 51 ] [ 52 ] The european Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raise of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the far-flung consumption of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier grow practices in Anatolia and the Near East. [ 53 ] It spread from the Balkans along the valley of the Danube and the Rhine ( linear Pottery acculturation ), and along the Mediterranean slide ( Cardial acculturation ). between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central european neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by boastfully agrarian settlements but by plain monuments, such as causeway enclosures, burying mounds and megalithic tombs. [ 54 ] The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the conversion from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this menstruation giant megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were constructed throughout western and Southern Europe. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the Minoan refinement on Crete, the first advanced civilization in Europe. [ 57 ] The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age. [ 58 ] Iron Age colonization by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the eighth century BCE gradually gave rise to historic Classical antiquity, whose begin is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games. [ 59 ]
classical antiquity
Ancient Greece was the establish culture of westerly refinement. western democratic and rationalist culture are much attributed to Ancient Greece. [ 60 ] The greek city state, the polis, was the cardinal political unit of classical Greece. [ 60 ] In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world ‘s beginning democratic system of government in Athens. [ 61 ] The greek political ideals were rediscovered in the belated eighteenth century by european philosophers and idealists. Greece besides generated many cultural contributions : in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato ; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides ; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poem of Homer ; [ 62 ] in drama with Sophocles and Euripides, in medicate with Hippocrates and Galen ; and in skill with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In the course of the fifth hundred BCE, respective of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian promote in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal here and now in world history, [ 66 ] as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of western refinement .
Greece was followed by Rome, which left its scar on law, politics, linguistic process, engineering, computer architecture, government and many more key aspects in westerly refinement. [ 60 ] By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over the following two centuries it conquered Greece and Hispania ( Spain and Portugal ), the north African slide, much of the Middle East, Gaul ( France and Belgium ) and Britannia ( England and Wales ). Expanding from their base in central Italy begin in the one-third hundred BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to finally rule the integral Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana, a menstruation of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe. [ 67 ] The conglomerate continued to expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent time on the Empire ‘s northerly frame fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine besides permanently moved the capital of the conglomerate from Rome to the city of Byzantium ( contemporary Istanbul ) which was renamed Constantinople in his honor in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE and in 391–392 CE, the emperor Theodosius outlawed heathen religions. [ 70 ] This is sometimes considered to mark the end of ancientness ; alternatively ancientness is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE ; the closure of the heathen Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE ; [ 71 ] or the ascent of Islam in the early seventh century CE .
early Middle Ages
During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a retentive time period of exchange arising from what historians call the “ Age of Migrations “. There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, subsequently on, the Vikings, Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars. [ 67 ] Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would late refer to this as the “ Dark Ages ”. [ 72 ] Isolated monk communities were the lone places to safeguard and compile written cognition accumulated previously ; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics and early think from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire. [ 73 ] While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained potent in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, besides known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its being, the Byzantine Empire was the most potent economic, cultural and military violence in Europe. Emperor justinian I presided over Constantinople ‘s beginning gold old age : he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the christian church under state of matter control. [ 74 ] From the seventh hundred onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were hard weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor. In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region. [ 75 ] Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southerly Italy. [ 76 ] Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia was brought under Muslim rule—save for belittled areas in the northwest ( Asturias ) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became separate of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful moment siege of Constantinople ( 717 ) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the frankish drawing card Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their north promote. In the distant regions of north-western Iberia and the center Pyrenees the office of the Muslims in the south was hardly felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon and Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the iberian Peninsula would start. however, no coordinated undertake would be made to drive the Moors out. The christian kingdoms were chiefly focussed on their own internal world power struggles. As a consequence, the Reconquista took the greater separate of eight hundred years, in which period a long tilt of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos and Bermudos would be fighting their christian rivals arsenic a lot as the Muslim invaders .
During the Dark Ages, the western Roman Empire fell under the control of versatile tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over western and Eastern Europe, respectively. [ 77 ] finally the frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. [ 78 ] Charlemagne, a frankish king of the carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed “ Holy Roman Emperor “ by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the initiation of the Holy Roman Empire, which finally became centred in the german principalities of central Europe. [ 79 ] east Central Europe saw the creation of the inaugural Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity ( c. 1000 CE ). The powerful West Slavic state of matter of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of arm conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the beginning South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and eighth century and adopted christendom : the First Bulgarian Empire, the serbian Principality ( late Kingdom and Empire ) and the Duchy of Croatia ( later Kingdom of Croatia ). To the East, the Kievan Rus expanded from its capital in Kyiv to become the largest state in Europe by the tenth century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state. Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the tenth hundred, but was finally absorbed into Russia respective centuries belated. [ 82 ]
high and late Middle Ages
[83][84] The maritime republics of chivalric Italy reestablished contacts between Europe, Asia and Africa with extensive trade networks and colonies across the Mediterranean, and had an essential function in the Crusades The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages, followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500. During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced meaning growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the twelfth hundred. Economic emergence, together with the lack of base hit on the mainland trade routes, made possible the exploitation of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading function in the european scene. The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure : the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe. [ 85 ] A fight for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament. [ 86 ] The basal source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in a lot of Europe. [ 85 ]
The Papacy reached the acme of its exponent during the High Middle Ages. An East-West schism in 1054 split the erstwhile Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the early Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land. [ 87 ] In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics. In the iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula. [ 88 ] In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000. [ 89 ] The Empire was weakened following the frustration at Manzikert, and was weakened well by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire. [ 99 ] [ 100 ] [ 101 ]
In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by mobile Turkic tribe, such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safe, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus ‘ express to the south and east. [ 102 ] Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. [ 103 ] The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were largely turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which by and by adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over contemporary southerly and cardinal Russia for more than three centuries. [ 104 ] [ 105 ] After the break down of Mongol dominions, the inaugural romanian states ( principalities ) emerged in the fourteenth hundred : Moldavia and Walachia. previously, these territories were under the consecutive control of Pechenegs and Cumans. [ 106 ] From the 12th to the fifteenth centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a minor principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and finally becoming the Tsardom of Russia. The express was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and confederacy over the next centuries. The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages. [ 107 ] The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by half. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, [ 110 ] and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same time period. [ 111 ] Europe was devastated in the mid-14th hundred by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third base of the european population at the meter. [ 112 ] The plague had a annihilative effect on Europe ‘s social social organization ; it induced people to live for the here and now as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron ( 1353 ). It was a dangerous blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers. [ 113 ] The infestation is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the eighteenth hundred. [ 114 ] During this time period, more than 100 blight epidemics swept across Europe. [ 115 ]
early advanced period
The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence, and former spreading to the stay of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forget classical greek and Arabic cognition from monk libraries, frequently translated from Arabic into Latin. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] [ 118 ] The Renaissance banquet across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries : it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music and the sciences, under the joint condescension of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church and an emerging merchant course. [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded fecund quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] political scheme within the church in the mid-14th century caused the western Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was finally healed in 1417, the papacy ‘s spiritual authority had suffered greatly. [ 124 ] In the fifteenth hundred, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world. [ 125 ] [ 126 ] Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the Southern tip of Africa. Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East linking the Atlantic and indian Oceans in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia westbound across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a spanish excursion, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the globe, completed by the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano ( 1519–1522 ). soon after, the spanish and portuguese began establishing large global empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. [ 127 ] France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building big colonial empires with huge holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia. In 1588, a spanish armada failed to invade England. A year subsequently England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe. This english calamity besides allowed the spanish fleet to retain its capability to engage war for the following decades. however, two more spanish armada failed to invade England ( 2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd spanish Armada ). [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ] [ 131 ]
The Church ‘s power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation in 1517 when german theologian Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door. He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull Exsurge Domine in 1520 and his followers were condemned in the 1521 Diet of Worms, which divided german princes between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths. [ 133 ] Religious fighting and war dispersed with Protestantism. [ 134 ] The loot of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance religious persecution in Europe for over a century. [ 135 ] The Thirty Years War ( 1618–1648 ) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percentage of its population. [ 136 ] In the consequence of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe. [ 137 ] The seventeenth hundred in central and parts of eastern Europe was a menstruation of general decay ; [ 138 ] the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700. [ 139 ] From the Union of Krewo ( 1385 ) east-central Europe was dominated by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The hegemony of the huge Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had ended with the devastation brought by the Second Northern War ( Deluge ) and subsequent conflicts ; [ 140 ] the state itself was partitioned and ceased to exist at the end of the eighteenth hundred. [ 141 ] From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves. [ 142 ] Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years, until the russian expansion and conquest of most of northerly Eurasia ( i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia ). The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the begin of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and scientific development. [ 143 ] Among the great figures of the western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Isaac Newton. [ 144 ] According to Peter Barrett, “ It is widely accepted that ‘modern science ‘ rebel in the Europe of the seventeenth century ( towards the end of the Renaissance ), introducing a new understand of the natural populace. ” [ 116 ]
18th and 19th centuries
The Age of Enlightenment was a mighty intellectual bowel movement during the eighteenth century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts. [ 145 ] [ 146 ] [ 147 ] discontent with the nobility and clergy ‘s monopoly on political exponent in France resulted in the french Revolution, and the establishment of the First Republic as a solution of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror. [ 148 ] Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the french Revolution, and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass big parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo. [ 149 ] [ 150 ] Napoleonic rule resulted in the farther dissemination of the ideals of the french Revolution, including that of the nation state, angstrom well as the far-flung borrowing of the french models of administration, law and department of education. [ 151 ] [ 152 ] [ 153 ] The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon ‘s downfall, established a new balance wheel of exponent in Europe centred on the five “ Great Powers “ : the UK, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia. [ 154 ] This symmetry would remain in locate until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were finally put down by cautious elements and few reforms resulted. [ 155 ] The class 1859 saw the union of Romania, as a nation state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed ; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities. [ 156 ] In twin, the Eastern Question grew more complex always since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War ( 1768–1774 ). As the profligacy of the Ottoman Empire seemed at hand, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The russian Empire stood to benefit from the worsen, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. meanwhile, the serbian rotation ( 1804 ) and Greek War of Independence ( 1821 ) marked the begin of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913. [ 157 ] Formal recognition of the de facto freelancer principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 .
The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the eighteenth hundred and bedspread throughout Europe. The invention and execution of modern technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the ascend of a fresh make class. [ 158 ] Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labor, the legalization of trade unions, [ 159 ] and the abolition of slavery. [ 160 ] In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which importantly improved living conditions in many british cities. [ 161 ] Europe ‘s population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. [ 162 ] The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland, caused death and multitude emigration of millions of irish people. [ 163 ] In the nineteenth hundred, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to diverse european colonies afield and to the United States. [ 164 ] Demographic growth meant that, by 1900, Europe ‘s parcel of the universe ‘s population was 25 %. [ 165 ]
twentieth hundred to the present
Map of European colonial empires throughout the earth in 1914. Two populace wars and an economic natural depression dominated the first one-half of the twentieth hundred. World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav patriot [ 166 ] Gavrilo Princip. [ 167 ] Most european nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers ( France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and by and by Italy, Greece, Romania and the United States ) and the Central Powers ( Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire ). The war left more than 16 million civilians and military dead. [ 168 ] Over 60 million european soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918. [ 169 ]
Russia was plunged into the russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union. [ 170 ] austria-hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended World War I in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed fleshy sanctions. [ 171 ] Excess deaths in Russia over the class of World War I and the Russian Civil War ( including the postwar famine ) amounted to a unite total of 18 million. [ 172 ] In 1932–1933, under Stalin ‘s leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the second Soviet dearth which caused millions of deaths ; [ 173 ] surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced tug. Stalin was besides creditworthy for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed 681,692 people ; [ 174 ] millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. [ 175 ]
The social revolutions sweeping through Russia besides affected other european nations following The Great War : in 1919, with the Weimar Republic in Germany and the First Austrian Republic ; in 1922, with Mussolini ‘s one-party fascist government in the Kingdom of Italy and in Atatürk ‘s Turkish Republic, adopting the western alphabet and state secularism. Economic instability, caused in function by debts incurred in the First World War and ‘loans ‘ to Germany played havoc in Europe in the deep 1920s and 1930s. This, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929, brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, sociable instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in office of what became Nazi Germany. [ 181 ] [ 182 ] In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of build Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a separate of Germany following the Anschluss. Later that class, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by heathen Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany and the Slovak Republic. At the time, Britain and France preferred a policy of appeasement .
Bombed and burned-out buildings in Hamburg, 1944/45 With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of World War II. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] [ 185 ] The soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the baltic countries and, on November 30, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastate Winter War for the Red Army. [ 186 ] The british hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the land was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from scandinavian resources. Around the like time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The Phoney War continued. In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the depleted Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August, Germany began a bombing offense on Britain, but failed to convince the Britons to give up. [ 187 ] In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. [ 188 ] On 7 December 1941 Japan ‘s attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the british Empire, and early allied forces. [ 189 ] [ 190 ]
After the stagger Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the german offense in the Soviet Union turned into a continual disengagement. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank conflict in history, was the concluding major german dysphemistic on the Eastern Front. In June 1944, british and american forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a fresh front against Germany. Berlin ultimately fell in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in homo history, with 60 million all in across the world. [ 191 ] More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a consequence of World War II, [ 192 ] including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during the Holocaust. [ 193 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people ( by and large civilians ) during the war, about half of all World War II casualties. [ 194 ] By the end of World War II, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. [ 195 ] respective post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a entire of about 20 million people, [ 196 ] in particular, German-speakers from all over Eastern Europe .
World War I, and particularly World War II, diminished the tuberosity of Western Europe in populace affairs. After World War II the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two bloc, the western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was late called by Winston Churchill an “ Iron Curtain “. The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and, belated, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact. [ 197 ] Particular hot spots after the second World War were Berlin and Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The Berlin obstruct in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the big external crises of the Cold War. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At the lapp time decolonization, which had already started after World War I, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the european colonies in Asia and Africa. [ 14 ]
In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity campaign in Poland weakened the previously inflexible communist system. The hatchway of the Iron Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in apparent motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the eastern bloc, the Warsaw Pact and communism collapsed, and the Cold War ended. [ 202 ] [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more. [ 205 ] This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolate cities such as Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the kernel of Europe. [ 181 ] [ 206 ] [ 207 ] [ 208 ] european integration besides grew after World War II. In 1949 the Council of Europe was founded, following a address by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals. It includes all european states except for Belarus and Vatican City. The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the european Economic Community between six westerly european states with the goal of a unite economic policy and common market. [ 209 ] In 1967 the EEC, european Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central bank, and introduced the euro as a unite currency. [ 210 ] Between 2004 and 2013, more cardinal and eastern european countries began joining, expanding the EU to 28 european countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power. [ 211 ] however, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016 referendum on EU membership. [ 212 ]
geography
Map of populous Europe and surrounding regions showing physical, political and population characteristics, as per 2018 Europe makes up the western fifth of the eurasian landmass. [ 25 ] It has a higher proportion of coast to landmass than any early continent or subcontinent. [ 213 ] Its nautical borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the confederacy. [ 214 ] Land easing in Europe shows great variation within relatively minor areas. The southerly regions are more mountainous, while moving union the terrain descends from the high gear Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through cragged highland, into broad, humble northern plains, which are huge in the east. This stretch lowland is known as the great european Plain and at its heart lies the union german Plain. An discharge of uplands besides exists along the north-western seaside, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord -cut spine of Norway. This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as the iberian Peninsula and the italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general swerve. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a farming unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are highland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising ocean levels cut them off .
climate
Europe lies chiefly in the moderate climate zones, being subjected to prevailing westerlies. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the lapp latitude around the ball due to the determine of the Gulf Stream. [ 215 ] The Gulf Stream is nicknamed “ Europe ‘s central heat ”, because it makes Europe ‘s climate warm and wetter than it would differently be. The Gulf Stream not alone carries warm water to Europe ‘s coast but besides warms up the predominate prevailing westerly winds that blow across the celibate from the Atlantic Ocean. consequently, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is 16 °C ( 61 °F ), while it is entirely 13 °C ( 55 °F ) in New York City which is about on the like latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany ; Calgary, Canada ; and Irkutsk, in army for the liberation of rwanda south-eastern Russia, lie on around the lapp latitude ; January temperatures in Berlin average about 8 °C ( 14 °F ) higher than those in Calgary and they are about 22 °C ( 40 °F ) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk. [ 215 ] The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are besides of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara defect to the Alpine discharge in its northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste. [ 216 ] In general, Europe is not precisely colder towards the north compared to the confederacy, but it besides gets cold from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less indeed in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes. none of them is located at high elevation ; most of them are close to the sea. ( placement, approximate latitude and longitude, cold calendar month average, hot calendar month average and annual modal temperatures in degrees C )
| Location | Latitude | Longitude | Coldest month |
Hottest month |
Annual average |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reykjavík | 64 N | 22 W | 0.1 | 11.2 | 4.7 |
| Umeå | 64 N | 20 E | −6.2 | 16.0 | 3.9 |
| Oulu | 65 N | 25.5 E | −9.6 | 16.5 | 2.7 |
| Arkhangelsk | 64.5 N | 40.5 E | −12.7 | 16.3 | 1.3 |
| Lerwick | 60 N | 1 W | 3.5 | 12.4 | 7.4 |
| Stockholm | 59.5 N | 19 E | −1.7 | 18.4 | 7.4 |
| Helsinki | 60 N | 25 E | −4.7 | 17.8 | 5.9 |
| Saint Petersburg | 60 N | 30 E | −5.8 | 18.8 | 5.8 |
| Edinburgh | 55.5 N | 3 W | 4.2 | 15.3 | 9.3 |
| Copenhagen | 55.5 N | 12 E | 1.4 | 18.1 | 9.1 |
| Klaipėda | 55.5 N | 21 E | −1.3 | 17.9 | 8.0 |
| Moscow | 55.5 N | 30 E | −6.5 | 19.2 | 5.8 |
| Isles of Scilly | 50 N | 6 W | 7.9 | 16.9 | 11.8 |
| Brussels | 50.5 N | 4 E | 3.3 | 18.4 | 10.5 |
| Krakow | 50 N | 20 E | −2.0 | 19.2 | 8.7 |
| Kyiv | 50.5 N | 30 E | −3.5 | 20.5 | 8.4 |
| Bordeaux | 45 N | 0 | 6.6 | 21.4 | 13.8 |
| Venice | 45.5 N | 12 E | 3.3 | 23.0 | 13.0 |
| Belgrade | 45 N | 20 E | 1.4 | 23.0 | 12.5 |
| Astrakhan | 46 N | 48 E | −3.7 | 25.6 | 10.5 |
| Coimbra | 40 N | 8 W | 9.9 | 21.9 | 16.0 |
| Valencia | 39.5 N | 0 | 11.9 | 26.1 | 18.3 |
| Naples | 40.5 N | 14 E | 8.7 | 24.7 | 15.9 |
| Istanbul | 41 N | 29 E | 6.0 | 23.8 | 11.4 |
[ 218 ] It is noteworthy how the average temperatures for the coldest calendar month, angstrom well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east. For case, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest calendar month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south .
geology
The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield ( Fennoscandia ) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia harbor, the three together leading to the East european craton ( ≈ Baltica ) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica ( as part of the Laurentia block ) became joined to Rodinia, subsequently resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia ; a further connect with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the turnout of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia ( North America ) and the eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable clock, via Greenland, leading to substitute of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe ‘s present shape dates to the deep Tertiary period about five million years ago. [ 219 ]
Read more: David Prowse
The geology of Europe is enormously varied and complex and gives originate to the across-the-board kind of landscapes found across the continent, from the scots Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary. [ 220 ] Europe ‘s most significant feature is the dichotomy between upland and cragged Southern Europe and a huge, partially subaqueous, northerly plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the batch chains of the Pyrenees and Alps / Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the scandinavian Mountains and the cragged parts of the british Isles. Major shallow urine bodies submerging parts of the northerly plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea. The northerly plain contains the honest-to-god geological celibate of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the “ main continent ”, while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west establish fragments from assorted other geological continents. Most of the older geology of westerly Europe existed as region of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia .
Flora
Land use function of Europe with arable farmland ( yellow ), forest ( dark green ), eatage ( light park ) and tundra, or bogs, in the north ( darkness yellow )
Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and Rainer Lösch Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennium, Europe ‘s animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northerly Russia, few areas of unmoved wilderness are presently found in Europe, except for assorted national parks. The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is assorted forest. The conditions for growth are very favorable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but balmy climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. mountain ridges besides affect the conditions. Some of these ( Alps, Pyrenees ) are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the department of the interior. Others are oriented south–north ( scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines ) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the early side, the conditions are much less favorable. few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some degree in fourth dimension and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural afforest habitat caused break to the original plant and animal ecosystems. possibly 80 to 90 percentage of Europe was once covered by afforest. [ 221 ] It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over half of Europe ‘s original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its estate area as afforest, such as the broadleaf and mix forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mix rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. however, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original assorted natural forest, because these mature quicker. The plantations nowadays cover huge areas of nation, but offer poorer habitats for many european forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest social organization. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is barely 2–3 % or less, while in its western Russia its 5–10 %. The european country with the smallest share of forested area is Iceland ( 1 % ), while the most afforest state is Finland ( 77 % ). [ 222 ] In temperate Europe, interracial afforest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most significant species in cardinal and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a shuffle spruce – pine – birch forest ; far north within Russia and extreme northerly Scandinavia, the taiga gives manner to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are identical well adapted to its arid climate ; Mediterranean Cypress is besides wide planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean area hosts a lot scrub forest. A constrict east–west tongue of eurasian grassland ( the steppe ) extends westwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the union .
Fauna
glaciation during the most holocene ice long time and the presence of man affected the distribution of european fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most boastfully animals and circus tent predator species have been hunted to extinction. The lanate mammoth was extinct before the goal of the Neolithic period. nowadays wolves ( carnivores ) and bears ( omnivores ) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. however, deforestation and hunt caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears ‘ habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest traverse. today, the brown university bear lives chiefly in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia ; a belittled number besides persist in other countries across Europe ( Austria, Pyrenees etc. ), but in these areas brown give birth populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the end of their habitat. In addition, pivotal bears may be found on Svalbard, a norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest marauder in Europe after the brown yield, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe ( Scandinavia, Spain, etc. ) .
european rampantly big cat, foxes ( particularly the bolshevik confuse ), jackal and unlike species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of reptiles ( like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes ) and amphibians, different birds ( owls, hawks and other birds of prey ). significant european herbivores are snails, larva, pisces, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and be in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A count of insects, such as the little tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity. [ 225 ] The extinction of the shadow hippopotamus and shadow elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on the islands of the Mediterranean. [ 226 ] Sea creatures are besides an authoritative part of european flora and fauna. The sea vegetation is chiefly phytoplankton. crucial animals that live in european seas are zooplankton, mollusk, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins and whales. Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe ‘s Bern Convention, which has besides been signed by the European Community a well as non-European states .
Politics
A clickable Euler diagram showing the relationships between respective multinational european organisations and agreements. The political map of Europe is well derived from the re-organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The prevailing form of politics in Europe is parliamentary democracy, in most cases in the human body of Republic ; in 1815, the prevailing form of government was still the Monarchy. Europe ‘s remaining football team monarchies [ 227 ] are constituent. european consolidation is the serve of political, legal, economic ( and in some cases social and cultural ) consolidation of european states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council of Europe since the end of World War II The European Union has been the focus of economic integration on the celibate since its foundation in 1993. More recently, the eurasian Economic Union has been established as a counterpart comprising erstwhile soviet states. 27 european states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 19 of the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller european organisations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly and the Visegrád Group .
list of states and territories
The list below includes all entities [ clarification needed ] falling tied partially under any of the diverse common definitions of Europe, [ clarification needed ] geographic or political .
Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with circumscribed to no international recognition. none of them are members of the united nations :
respective dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are besides found within or in close proximity to Europe. This includes Åland ( a region of Finland ), two component countries of the Kingdom of Denmark ( early than Denmark itself ), three Crown dependencies and two british Overseas Territories. Svalbard is besides included due to its singular condition within Norway, although it is not autonomous. not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolve powers and the two autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique academic degree of autonomy, are not largely autonomous in matters early than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax condition, such as Heligoland and the Canary Islands, are besides not included for this reason .
economy
european and bordering nations by GDP ( PPP ) per caput As a continent, the economy of Europe is presently the largest on land and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $ 32.7 trillion compared to North America ‘s $ 27.1 trillion in 2008. [ 229 ] In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region. Its $ 37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the populace ‘s wealth. It was one of respective regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end extremum. [ 230 ] As with other continents, Europe has a large magnetic declination of wealth among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the West, followed by Central Europeans, while some of the Eastern Europe economies are even emerging from the crumble of the Soviet Union and the dissolution of Yugoslavia. The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic geographic representation of the respective economic baron of the regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or Blue Star. The trade between East and West, adenine well as towards Asia, which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In addition, there is new impulse from the taiwanese Belt and Road Initiative across the Suez Canal towards Africa and Asia. [ 231 ] The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 european states, comprises the largest individual economic area in the world. nineteen EU countries partake the euro as a common currency. Five european countries rank in the top ten-spot of the universe ‘s largest national economies in GDP ( PPP ). This includes ( ranks according to the CIA ) : Germany ( 6 ), Russia ( 7 ), the United Kingdom ( 10 ), France ( 11 ) and Italy ( 13 ). [ 232 ] There is huge disparity between many european countries in terms of their income. The richest in terms of nominative GDP is Monaco with its US $ 185,829 per caput ( 2018 ) and the poorest is ukraine with its US $ 3,659 per head ( 2019 ). [ 233 ] Monaco is the richest nation in terms of GDP per head in the worldly concern according to the World Bank report. As a whole, Europe ‘s GDP per head is US $ 21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund judgment. [ 234 ]
| Rank | Country | GDP (nominal, Peak Year) millions of USD |
Peak Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| – |  European Union |
19,226,235 | 2008 |
| 1 |  Germany |
4,230,172 | 2021 |
| 2 |  United Kingdom |
3,108,416 | 2021 |
| 3 |  France |
2,940,428 | 2021 |
| 4 |  Italy |
2,408,392 | 2008 |
| 5 |  Russia |
2,288,428 | 2013 |
| 6 |  Spain |
1,631,685 | 2008 |
| 7 |  Netherlands |
1,007,562 | 2021 |
| 8 |  Turkey |
957,504 | 2013 |
| 9 |  Switzerland |
810,830 | 2021 |
| 10 |  Poland |
655,332 | 2021 |
| Rank | Country | GDP (PPP, Peak Year) millions of USD |
Peak Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| – | European Union |
22,825,236 | 2019 |
| 1 | Germany |
4,843,389 | 2021 |
| 2 | Russia |
4,447,477 | 2021 |
| 3 | France |
3,322,310 | 2021 |
| 4 | United Kingdom |
3,276,143 | 2021 |
| 5 | Turkey |
2,873,841 | 2021 |
| 6 | Italy |
2,697,137 | 2021 |
| 7 | Spain |
2,006,709 | 2019 |
| 8 | Poland |
1,412,297 | 2021 |
| 9 | Netherlands |
1,079,164 | 2021 |
| 10 | Switzerland |
677,269 | 2021 |
economic history
- Industrial growth (1760–1945)
capitalism has been dominant in the western earth since the end of feudalism. [ 235 ] From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe. [ 236 ] The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the deep eighteenth hundred, [ 237 ] and the nineteenth century saw Western Europe industrialize. Economies were disrupted by World War I but by the beginning of World War II they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. World War II, again, damaged much of Europe ‘s industries .
- Cold War (1945–1991)
After World War II the economy of the UK was in a state of bankrupt, [ 238 ] and continued to suffer relative economic refuse in the follow decades. [ 239 ] Italy was besides in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s. [ 240 ] France besides staged a remarkable rejoinder enjoying rapid growth and modernization ; late on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, besides recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic emergence beginning in the 1960s in what is called the spanish miracle. [ 241 ] The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Soviet Union and frankincense were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( COMECON ). [ 242 ] The states which retained a free-market system were given a big sum of care by the United States under the Marshall Plan. [ 243 ] The western states moved to link their economies in concert, providing the basis for the EU and increasing hybridization boundary line trade. This helped them to enjoy quickly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a boastfully part due to the price of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the west german economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe ‘s largest economy .
- Reunification (1991–present)
With the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states began complimentary grocery store reforms. After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany. By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe comprising the five largest european economies of the meter namely Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone replacing their early national currencies by the park euro. The three who chose to remain outside the Eurozone were : the United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden. The European Union is now the largest economy in the world. [ 245 ] Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recess in 2008. [ 246 ] It impacted much of the region. [ 247 ] In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis [ 248 ] developed concerning some countries in Europe, specially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal. [ 249 ] As a solution, measures were taken, specially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone. [ 250 ] The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3 % in 2012. [ 251 ] For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4 %. [ 251 ]
Demographics
In 2017, the population of Europe was estimated to be 742 million according to the 2019 revision of the World Population Prospects [ 2 ] [ 3 ], which is slenderly more than one-ninth of the populace ‘s population. [ a ] A century ago, Europe had closely a quarter of the world ‘s population. [ 253 ] The population of Europe has grown in the past hundred, but in other areas of the world ( in particular Africa and Asia ) the population has grown far more quickly. [ 254 ] Among the continents, Europe has a relatively high population density, second only to Asia. Most of Europe is in a mood of Sub-replacement fertility, which means that each new ( -born ) generation is being less populous than the older. The most dumbly populate state in Europe ( and in the universe ) is the microstate of Monaco .
ethnic groups
Pan and Pfeil ( 2004 ) count 87 distinct “ peoples of Europe ”, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign submit, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. [ 255 ] According to UN population expulsion, Europe ‘s population may fall to approximately 7 % of world population by 2050, or 653 million people ( medium version, 556 to 777 million in broken and high variants, respectively ). [ 254 ] Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation back to richness rates. The average count of children per female of child-bearing age is 1.52. [ 256 ] According to some sources, [ 257 ] this rate is higher among Muslims in Europe. The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and abject birth rates. [ 258 ]
migration
Map showing areas of european colonization ( people who claim wide european descent ) Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at 70.6 million people, the IOM ‘s composition said. [ 259 ] In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people. This accounted for about 85 % of Europe ‘s sum population growth. [ 260 ] In 2008, 696,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU27 penis state, a decrease from 707,000 the previous year. [ 261 ] In 2017, approximately 825,000 persons acquired citizenship of an EU28 member submit. [ 262 ] 2.4 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2017. [ 263 ] early advanced emigration from Europe began with spanish and portuguese settlers in the sixteenth century, [ 264 ] [ 265 ] and french and english settlers in the seventeenth century. [ 266 ] But numbers remained relatively small until waves of batch emigration in the nineteenth century, when millions of poor families left Europe. [ 267 ] nowadays, large populations of european lineage are found on every continent. european ancestry predominates in North America and to a lesser degree in South America ( particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other latin american countries besides have a considerable population of european origins ). Australia and New Zealand have large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities ( or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context ), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans in South Africa. In Asia, European-derived populations, ( specifically Russians ), predominate in North Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan. [ 268 ]
Languages
Europe has about 225 autochthonal languages, [ 269 ] largely falling within three indo-european speech groups : the Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire ; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor terminology came from southerly Scandinavia ; and the Slavic languages. [ 219 ] Slavic languages are largely spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. romance languages are spoken primarily in western and Southern Europe, adenine well as in Switzerland in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in western, Northern and Central Europe deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe. [ 219 ] Languages in adjacent areas show significant overlaps ( such as in English, for exemplar ). early aryan languages outside the three main groups include the Baltic group ( latvian and lithuanian ), the Celtic group ( Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and Breton [ 219 ] ), Greek, Armenian and Albanian. A distinct non-Indo-European class of Uralic languages ( estonian, finnish, hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari, Moksha and Udmurt ) is spoken chiefly in Estonia, Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia. Turkic languages include Azerbaijani, Kazakh and Turkish, in accession to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe ( Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar ). Kartvelian languages ( georgian, Mingrelian and Svan ) are spoken chiefly in Georgia. Two early speech families reside in the North Caucasus ( termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin ; and Northwest Caucasian, most notably including Adyghe ). maltese dog is the only semitic linguistic process that is official within the EU, while Basque is the only european speech sequester. Multilingualism and the auspices of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe ‘s european Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe .
major cities and urban areas
The four largest urban areas of Europe are Istanbul, Moscow, London and Paris. All have over 10 million residents, [ 270 ] and as such have been described as megacities. [ 271 ] While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partially in Asia, making Moscow the largest city wholly in Europe. The adjacent largest cities in rate of population are Saint Petersburg, Madrid, Berlin and Rome, each having over 3 million residents. [ 270 ] When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas, within the EU ( for which comparable data is available ) Moscow covers the largest population, followed in ordain by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin. [ 272 ]
culture
contemporary political map of Europe showing cultural proximities “ Europe ” as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared inheritance of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of Christendom ( or more specifically Latin Christendom ), as established or defended throughout the chivalric and early modern history of Europe, specially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in Europe. [ 273 ]
This shared cultural inheritance is combined by overlapping autochthonal national cultures and folklores, approximately divided into Slavic, Latin ( Romance ) and Germanic, but with respective components not share of either of these group ( notably Greek, Basque and Celtic ). Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin ( Romance ) and Germanic or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots. cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large character of the regional cultures of Europe. It is much described as “ maximal cultural diversity with minimal geographic distances ”. different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the bearing of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the european Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the european capital of Sport .
religion
historically, religion in Europe has been a major influence on european artwork, culture, philosophy and law. There are six patron saints of Europe venerated in Roman Catholicism, five of them then declared by Pope John Paul II between 1980 and 1999 : Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross ( Edith Stein ). The exception is Benedict of Nursia, who had already been declared “ Patron Saint of all Europe ” by Pope Paul VI in 1964. [ 277 ] [ circular reference ] The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2 % of Europeans considering themselves Christians, [ 278 ] including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and assorted Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are historically state-supported european denominations such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed religion. early protestant denominations such as historically significant ones like Anabaptists were never supported by any country and frankincense are not so widespread, angstrom well as these newly arriving from the United States such as Pentecostalism, Adventism, Methodism, Baptists and assorted evangelical Protestants ; although Methodism and Baptists both have european origins. The impression of “ Europe ” and the “ western World “ has been well connected with the concept of “ Christianity and Christendom “ ; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a coordinated european identity. [ 279 ] historically, Europe has been the center and “ cradle of christian civilization “. [ 280 ] [ 281 ] [ 282 ] [ 283 ] Christianity, including the Roman Catholic Church, [ 284 ] [ 285 ] has played a big function in the formative of western refinement since at least the fourth century, [ 286 ] [ 287 ] [ 288 ] [ 289 ] and for at least a millennium and a half, Europe has been closely equivalent to christian culture, even though the religion was inherited from the Middle East. christian culture was the prevailing force in western refinement, guiding the run of philosophy, art and science. [ 290 ] [ 291 ] In 2012 Europe had the worldly concern ‘s largest christian population. [ 8 ] The second most democratic religion is Islam ( 6 % ) [ 292 ] concentrated chiefly in the Balkans and Eastern Europe ( Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, Kazakhstan, North Cyprus, Turkey, Azerbaijan, North Caucasus and the Volga-Ural region ). early religions, including Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism are minority religions ( though Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion of Russia ‘s Republic of Kalmykia ). The twentieth century saw the revival of Neopaganism through movements such as Wicca and Druidry. Europe has become a relatively secular continent, with an increasing number and symmetry of irreligious, atheist and agnostic people, who make up about 18.2 % of Europe ‘s population, [ 293 ] presently the largest layman population in the westerly earth. There are a particularly high number of self-described non-religious people in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Sweden, former East Germany and France. [ 294 ]
sport
This section is an excerpt from Sport in Europe 
Football is one of the most popular sports in Europe. Camp Nou stadium in Barcelona, the largest in Europe. fun in Europe tends to be highly organized with many sports having professional leagues .
The origins of many of the world’s most popular sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, especially in Great Britain. However, a paradoxical feature of European sport is the remarkable extent to which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate.[295] The origins of many of the universe ‘s most democratic sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, particularly in Great Britain. however, a paradoxical feature of european sport is the remarkable extent to which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate .
See besides
Notes
- ^ This number includes Siberia, ( about 38 million people ) but exclude european Turkey ( about 12 million ) .
References
Sources
- National Geographic Society (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-3695-5.
- Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2011). The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. 1. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-91311-5.
- Brown, Stephen F.; Anatolios, Khaled; Palmer, Martin (2009). O’Brien, Joanne (ed.). Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-106-2.
Historical Maps
Europe at Wikipedia’s at Wikipedia ‘s
sister projects
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