Mark Antony

Roman politician and general

Marcus Antonius ( 14 January 83 BC – 1 August 30 BC ), normally known in English as Mark Antony or Anthony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical character in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autocratic Roman Empire. Antony was a proportional and assistant of Julius Caesar, and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, and Spain. After Caesar ‘s character assassination in 44 BC, Antony joined forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another of Caesar ‘s generals, and Octavian, Caesar ‘s great-nephew and adopted son, forming a three-man dictatorship known to historians as the Second Triumvirate. The Triumvirs defeated Caesar ‘s killers, the Liberatores, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic between themselves. Antony was assigned Rome ‘s easterly provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt, then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator, and was given the command in Rome ‘s war against Parthia.

Relations among the triumvirs were strained as the diverse members sought greater political baron. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavian ‘s sister, Octavia. Despite this marriage, Antony carried on a sexual love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, far straining Antony ‘s relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into civil war in 31 BC, as the Roman Senate, at Octavian ‘s direction, declared war on Cleopatra and proclaimed Antony a double-crosser. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavian ‘s forces at the Battle of Actium. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt where, having again been defeated at the Battle of Alexandria, they committed suicide. With Antony dead, augustus became the undisputed headmaster of the Roman populace. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the deed of Augustus, marking the final stage in the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire, with himself as the first Roman emperor butterfly .

early liveliness [edit ]

A member of the common Antonia gens, Antony was born in Rome on 14 January 83 BC. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] His founder and namesake was Marcus Antonius Creticus, son of the notice orator by the like mention who had been murdered during the purges of Gaius Marius in the winter of 87–86 BC. [ 3 ] His mother was Julia, a third base cousin of Julius Caesar. Antony was an baby at the time of Lucius Cornelius Sulla ‘s march on Rome in 82 BC. [ 4 ] [ note 1 ]
Antony ‘s brother Lucius, on a mint issued at Ephesus during his consulship in 41 BC According to the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, Antony ‘s father was incapable and bribe, and was lone given might because he was incapable of using or abusing it efficaciously. [ 5 ] In 74 BC he was given the military command to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BC without making any significant progress. [ 3 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The elder Antony ‘s death left Antony and his brothers, Lucius and Gaius, in the care of their mother, Julia, who late married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, an eminent member of the old patrician nobility. Lentulus, despite exploiting his political achiever for fiscal gain, was constantly in debt due to his extravagance. He was a major number in the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy and was summarily executed on the orders of the consul Cicero in 63 BC for his involvement. [ 7 ] According to the historian Plutarch, Antony spent his adolescent years wandering through Rome with his brothers and friends gambling, drink, and becoming involved in disgraceful beloved affairs. [ 6 ] Antony ‘s contemporaneous and enemy, Cicero, charged that he had a homosexual kinship with Gaius Scribonius Curio. [ 8 ] This shape of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] There is little reliable information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an consociate of Publius Clodius Pulcher and his street gang. [ 11 ] He may besides have been involved in the Lupercal cult as he was referred to as a priest of this order by and by in liveliness. [ 12 ] By age twenty dollar bill, Antony had amassed an enormous debt. Hoping to escape his creditors, Antony fled to Greece in 58 BC, where he studied doctrine and grandiosity at Athens .

early career [edit ]

In 57 BC, Antony joined the military staff of Aulus Gabinius, the Proconsul of Syria, as foreman of the cavalry. [ 13 ] This appointment marks the begin of his military career. [ 14 ] As consul the previous year, Gabinius had consented to the exile of Cicero by Antony ‘s mentor, Publius Clodius Pulcher. Hyrcanus II, the Roman-supported Hasmonean High Priest of Judea, fled Jerusalem to Gabinius to seek protection against his rival and son-in-law Alexander. Years earlier in 63 BC, the Roman general Pompey had captured him and his forefather, King Aristobulus II, during his war against the leftover of the Seleucid Empire. Pompey had deposed Aristobulus and installed Hyrcanus as Rome ‘s node rule over Judea. [ 15 ] Antony achieved his first military distinctions after securing crucial victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus. [ 16 ] With the rebellion defeated by 56 BC, Gabinius restored Hyrcanus to his position as gamey Priest in Judea .
The follow class, in 55 BC, Gabinius intervened in the political affairs of Ptolemaic Egypt. Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes had been deposed in a rebellion led by his daughter Berenice IV in 58 BC, forcing him to seek mental hospital in Rome. During Pompey ‘s conquests years earlier, Ptolemy had received the accompaniment of Pompey, who named him an ally of Rome. [ 17 ] Gabinius ‘ invasion sought to restore Ptolemy to his throne. This was done against the orders of the united states senate but with the approval of Pompey, then Rome ‘s lead politician, and alone after the swear king provided a 10,000 endowment bribe. The greek historian plutarch records it was Antony who convinced Gabinius to last act. [ 16 ] After defeating the frontier forces of the egyptian kingdom, Gabinius ‘ army proceeded to attack the palace guards but they surrendered before a struggle commenced. [ 18 ] With Ptolemy XII restored as Rome ‘s node king, Gabinius garrisoned two thousand Roman soldiers, late known as the Gabiniani, in Alexandria to ensure Ptolemy ‘s agency. In rejoinder for its support, Rome exercised considerable exponent over the kingdom ‘s affairs, particularly control of the kingdom ‘s revenues and crop yields. [ 19 ] Antony claimed years late to have first met Cleopatra, the then 14-year-old daughter of Ptolemy XII, during this campaign in Egypt. [ 20 ] While Antony was serving Gabinius in the East, the domestic political situation had changed in Rome. In 60 BC, a secret agreement ( known as the “ beginning Triumvirate ” ) was entered into between three men to control the Republic : Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Crassus, Rome ‘s wealthiest man, had defeated the slave rebellion of Spartacus in 70 BC ; Pompey conquered much of the easterly Mediterranean in the 60 ‘s BC ; Caesar was Rome ‘s Pontifex Maximus and a former general in Spain. In 59 BC, Caesar, with fund from Crassus, was elected consul to pursue legislation favorable to Crassus and Pompey ‘s interests. In return key, Caesar was assigned the governorship of Illyricum, Cisalpine Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul for five years beginning in 58 BC. Caesar used his governorship as a launching detail for his conquest of spare Gaul. In 55 BC, Crassus and Pompey served as consul while Caesar ‘s dominate was extended for another five years. Rome was efficaciously under the absolute world power of these three men. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] The Triumvirate used Publius Clodius Pulcher, Antony ‘s patron, to exile their political rivals, notably Cicero [ 23 ] and Cato the Younger. During his early military avail, Antony married his cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor, the daughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida. Sometime between 54 and 47 BC, the union produced a individual known child, Antonia. It is indecipherable if this was Antony ‘s first marriage. [ note 2 ]

Service under Caesar [edit ]

Gallic Wars [edit ]

The ancient Mediterranean in 50 BC at the goal of Caesar ‘s Gallic Wars, with the territory of Rome in yellow. Antony ‘s affiliation with Publius Clodius Pulcher allowed him to achieve greater prominence. Clodius, through the determine of his benefactor Marcus Licinius Crassus, had developed a cocksure political relationship with Julius Caesar. Clodius secured Antony a position on Caesar ‘s military staff in 54 BC, joining his conquest of Gaul. Serving under Caesar, Antony demonstrated excellent military leadership. Despite a irregular alienation later in life, Antony and Caesar developed friendly relations which would continue until Caesar ‘s assassination in 44 BC. Caesar ‘s influence secured greater political promotion for Antony. After a class of service in Gaul, Caesar dispatched Antony to Rome to formally begin his political career, receiving election as quaestor for 52 BC as a member of the Populares cabal. Assigned to assist Caesar, Antony returned to Gaul and commanded Caesar ‘s cavalry during his victory at the Battle of Alesia against the Gallic captain Vercingetorix. Following his year in function, Antony was promoted by Caesar to the absolute of Legate and assigned command of two legions ( approximately 7,500 sum soldiers ). [ 24 ] meanwhile, the alliance among Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had efficaciously ended. Caesar ‘s daughter Julia, who had married Pompey to secure the confederation, died in 54 BC while Crassus was killed at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Without the stability they provided, the separate between Caesar and Pompey grew ever larger. [ 25 ] Caesar ‘s glory in conquering Gaul had served to further strain his alliance with Pompey, [ 25 ] who, having grown covetous of his early ally, had drifted away from Caesar ‘s democratic Populares party towards the oligarchic Optimates faction led by Cato. The supporters of Caesar, led by Clodius, and the supporters of Pompey, led by Titus Annius Milo, routinely clashed. In 52 BC, Milo succeeded in assassinating Clodius, resulting in widespread riots and the burn off of the united states senate meet house, the Curia Hostilia, by Clodius ‘ street gang. Anarchy resulted, causing the united states senate to look to Pompey. Fearing the persecutions of Lucius Cornelius Sulla alone thirty years earlier, they avoided granting Pompey the dictatorship by rather naming him lone consul for the year, giving him extraordinary but limited powers. Pompey ordered arm soldiers into the city to restore order and to eliminate the remnants of Clodius ‘ crowd. [ 26 ] Antony remained on Caesar ‘s military staff until 50 BC, helping mopping-up actions across Gaul to secure Caesar ‘s seduction. With the war over, Antony was sent back to Rome to act as Caesar ‘s defender against Pompey and the other Optimates. With the support of Caesar, who as Pontifex Maximus was lead of the Roman religion, Antony was appointed the College of Augurs, an crucial priestly agency responsible for interpreting the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. All public actions required favorable auspices, granting the college considerable determine. Antony was then elected as one of the ten plebeian tribunes for 49 BC. In this situation, Antony could protect Caesar from his political enemies, by vetoing any actions unfavorable to his patron .

Civil War [edit ]

The feud between Caesar and Pompey erupted into overt confrontation by early 49 BC. The consul for the class, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, were firm Optimates opposed to Caesar. [ 27 ] Pompey, though remaining in Rome, was then serving as the governor of Spain and commanded several legions. Upon assuming office in January, Antony immediately summoned a meet of the senate to resolve the conflict : he proposed both Caesar and Pompey lay down their commands and fall to the condition of mere individual citizens. [ 28 ] His proposal was well received by most of the senators but the consul and Cato vehemently opposed it. Antony then made a new proposal : Caesar would retain alone two of his eight legions, and the governorship of Illyrium if he was allowed to stand for the consulship in absentia. This arrangement ensured his immunity from suit would continue : he had needed the consulship to protect himself from prosecution by Pompey. Though Pompey found the concession satisfactory, Cato and Lentulus refused to back down, with Lentulus even expelling Antony from the senate meet by violence. Antony fled Rome, fearing for his liveliness, and returned to Caesar ‘s camp on the banks of the Rubicon, the southerly limit of Caesar ‘s true command. Within days of Antony ‘s ejection, on 7 January 49 BC, the united states senate reconvened. Under the leadership of Cato and with the silent support of Pompey, the united states senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, a decree stripping Caesar of his command and ordering him to return to Rome and stand test for war crimes. The united states senate further declared Caesar a traitor and a populace enemy if he did not immediately disband his army. [ 29 ] With all hopes of finding a peaceful solution gone after Antony ‘s extrusion, Caesar used Antony as a pretext for marching on Rome. As tribune, Antony ‘s person was inviolable, so it was unlawful to harm him or to refuse to recognize his veto. Three days later, on 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, initiating the Civil War. [ 30 ] During the southerly march, Caesar placed Antony as his second in command. Caesar ‘s rapid advance surprised Pompey, who, along with the other chief members of the Optimates, fled Italy for Greece. After entering Rome, alternatively of pursuing Pompey, Caesar marched to Spain to defeat the Pompeian loyalists there. interim, Antony, with the absolute of propraetor —despite never having served as praetor —was installed as governor of Italy and air force officer of the army, stationed there while Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, one of Caesar ‘s staff officers, ran the probationary administration of Rome itself. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Though Antony was well liked by his soldiers, most early citizens despised him for his lack of interest in the hardships they faced from the civil war. [ 33 ] By the conclusion of the class 49 BC, Caesar, already the rule of Gaul, had captured Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia out of Optimates control. In early 48 BC, he prepared to sail with seven legions to Greece to face Pompey. Caesar had entrusted the defense of Illyricum to Gaius Antonius, Antony ‘s younger buddy, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella. Pompey ‘s forces, however, defeated them and assumed command of the Adriatic Sea along with it. additionally, the two legions they commanded defected to Pompey. Without their fleet, Caesar lacked the necessity transport ships to cross into Greece with his seven legions. rather, he sailed with entirely two and placed Antony in command of the remaining five at Brundisium with instructions to join him angstrom soon as he was able. In early 48 BC, Lucius Scribonius Libo was given command of Pompey ‘s fleet, comprising some fifty dollar bill galleys. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Moving off to Brundisium, he blockaded Antony. Antony, however, managed to trick Libo into pursuing some decoy ships, causing Libo ‘s squadron to be trapped and attacked. Most of Libo ‘s fleet managed to escape, but respective of his troops were trapped and captured. [ 34 ] [ 36 ] With Libo gone, Antony joined Caesar in Greece by March 48 BC .
The Battle of Pharsalus : the decisive battle of Caesar ‘s Civil War. Antony commanded the leftover wing of Caesar ‘s army. During the Greek campaign, Plutarch records that Antony was Caesar ‘s top general, and second alone to him in reputation. [ 37 ] Antony joined Caesar at the western Balkan Peninsula and besieged Pompey ‘s larger army at Dyrrhachium. With food sources running depleted, Caesar, in July, ordered a nocturnal assail on Pompey ‘s camp, but Pompey ‘s larger forces pushed back the rape. Though an indecisive resultant role, the victory was a tactical succeed for Pompey. Pompey, however, did not holy order a counterassault on Caesar ‘s camp, allowing Caesar to retreat unhampered. Caesar would by and by remark the civil war would have ended that day if only Pompey had attacked him. [ 38 ] Caesar managed to retreat to Thessaly, with Pompey in pastime. Assuming a defensive side at the complain of Pharsalus, Caesar ‘s united states army prepared for gear battle with Pompey ‘s, which outnumbered his own two to one. At the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, Caesar commanded the right wing opposite Pompey while Antony commanded the leftover, indicating Antony ‘s status as Caesar ‘s top general. [ 37 ] The result conflict was a decisive victory for Caesar. Though the civil war had not ended at Pharsulus, the struggle marked the pinnacle of Caesar ‘s power and effectively ended the Republic. [ 39 ] The battle gave Caesar a much needed promote in legitimacy, as prior to the struggle much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and the Optimates as the legitimate government of Rome. After Pompey ‘s kill, most of the senate defected to Caesar, including many of the soldiers who had fought under Pompey. Pompey himself fled to Ptolemaic Egypt, but Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator feared retribution from Caesar and had Pompey assassinated upon his arrival .

governor of Italy [edit ]

alternatively of immediately pursuing Pompey and the remaining Optimates, Caesar returned to Rome and was appointed Dictator with Antony as his master of the Horse and moment in command. [ 40 ] Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship for 47 BC and then, after football team days in office, resigned this dictatorship. [ 41 ] Caesar then sailed to Egypt, where he deposed Ptolemy XIII in favor of his sister Cleopatra in 47 BC. The young Cleopatra became Caesar ‘s mistress and bore him a son, Caesarion. Caesar ‘s actions further reinforced Roman control over the already Roman-dominated kingdom. [ 42 ] While Caesar was aside in Egypt, Antony remained in Rome to govern Italy and restore order. [ 43 ] Without Caesar to guide him, however, Antony quickly faced political difficulties and proved himself unpopular. The headman causal agent of his political challenges concerned debt forgiveness. One of the tribunes for 47 BC, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, a erstwhile general under Pompey, proposed a jurisprudence which would have canceled all outstanding debts. Antony opposed the law for political and personal reasons : he believed Caesar would not support such massive relief and suspected Dolabella had seduced his wife Antonia Hybrida Minor. When Dolabella sought to enact the law by wedge and seized the Roman Forum, Antony responded by unleashing his soldiers upon the assemble masses, killing hundreds. [ 44 ] The resulting imbalance, particularly among Caesar ‘s veterans who would have benefited from the jurisprudence, forced Caesar to return to Italy by October 47 BC. [ 43 ] Antony ‘s treatment of the affair with Dolabella caused a cool of his kinship with Caesar. Antony ‘s violent reaction had caused Rome to fall into a country of anarchy. Caesar sought to mend relations with the democrat leader ; he was elected to a third condition as consul for 46 BC, but proposed the senate should transfer the consulship to Dolabella. When Antony protested, Caesar was forced to withdraw the motion out of shame. Later, Caesar sought to exercise his prerogatives as Dictator and directly laud Dolabella as consul alternatively. [ 45 ] Antony again protested and, in his capacity as an Augur, declared the omens were unfavorable and Caesar again backed depressed. [ 46 ] Seeing the expedience of removing Dolabella from Rome, Caesar ultimately pardoned him for his function in the riots and took him as one of his generals in his campaigns against the remaining Optimates underground. [ 37 ] Antony, however, was stripped of all official positions and received no appointments for the year 46 BC or 45 BC. rather of Antony, Caesar appointed Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to be his consular colleague for 46 BC. While Caesar campaigned in North Africa, Antony remained in Rome as a bare private citizen. After returning triumphant from North Africa, Caesar was appointed Dictator for ten years and brought Cleopatra and their son to Rome. Antony again remained in Rome while Caesar, in 45 BC, sailed to Spain to defeat the final opposition to his predominate. When Caesar returned in recently 45 BC, the civil war was over. During this time Antony married his third wife, Fulvia. Following the scandal with Dolabella, Antony had divorced his second wife and promptly married Fulvia. Fulvia had previously been married to both Publius Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius Curio, having been a widow since Curio ‘s death in the battle of the Bagradas in 49 BC. Though Antony and Fulvia were formally married in 47 BC, Cicero suggests the two had been in a kinship since at least 58 BC. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The union produced two children : Marcus Antonius Antyllus ( natural 47 ) and Iullus Antonius ( have a bun in the oven 45 ) .

assassination of Caesar [edit ]

Ides of March [edit ]

Whatever conflicts existed between himself and Caesar, Antony remained close to Caesar, ensuring their alienation did not last farseeing. Antony reunited with Caesar at Narbo in 45 BC with full moon reconciliation coming in 44 BC when Antony was elected consul aboard Caesar. Caesar planned a new invasion of Parthia and desired to leave Antony in Italy to govern Rome in his name. The reconciliation came soon after Antony rejected an offer by Gaius Trebonius, one of Caesar ‘s generals, to join a conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. [ 49 ] [ 50 ]
soon after they assumed office together, the Lupercalia festival was held on 15 February 44 BC. The festival was held in honor of Lupa, the she-wolf who suckled the baby orphans Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. [ 51 ] The political standard atmosphere of Rome at the time of the festival was deeply divided. Caesar had enacted a count of constitutional reforms which centralized efficaciously all political powers within his own hands. He was granted foster honors, including a form of semi-official cult, with Antony as his high priest. [ 52 ] Additionally, on 1 January 44 BC, Caesar had been named Dictator for Life, efficaciously granting inexhaustible ability. Caesar ‘s political rivals feared these reforms were his attempts at transforming the Republic into an open monarchy. During the festival ‘s activities, Antony publicly offered Caesar a crown, which Caesar threw off. When Antony placed the crown in his lap, Caesar ordered the crown to be placed in the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The event presented a brawny message : a crown was a symbol of a king. By refusing it, Caesar demonstrated he had no intention of making himself King of Rome. Antony ‘s motivative for such actions is not net and it is unknown if he acted with Caesar ‘s anterior approval or on his own. [ 53 ]
“ Marc Antony ‘s oration at Caesar ‘s Funeral ” as depicted by George Edward Robertson A group of senators resolved to kill Caesar to prevent him from establishing a monarchy. Chief among them were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Although Cassius was “ the moving spirit ” in the plot, winning over the foreman assassins to the campaign of tyrannicide, Brutus, with his kin ‘s history of deposing Rome ‘s kings, became their leader. [ 54 ] Cicero, though not personally involved in the conspiracy, later claimed Antony ‘s actions sealed Caesar ‘s destiny as such an obvious expose of Caesar ‘s eminence motivated them to act. [ 55 ] Originally, the conspirators had planned to eliminate not only Caesar but besides many of his supporters, including Antony, but Brutus rejected the proposal, limiting the conspiracy to Caesar entirely. [ 56 ] With Caesar preparing to depart for Parthia in late March, the conspirators prepared to act when Caesar appeared for the united states senate meet on the Ides of March ( 15 March ). Antony besides went with Caesar, but was waylaid at the door of the Theatre of Pompey by Trebonius and was distracted from aiding Caesar. According to the greek historian Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the senate, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a prayer to recall his expatriate brother. [ 57 ] The other conspirators crowded polish to offer their back. Within moments, the group of five conspirators stabbed Caesar one by one. Caesar attempted to get away, but, being drenched by rake, he tripped and fell. According to Roman historian Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the character assassination. Caesar was stabbed 23 times and died from the blood personnel casualty attributable to multiple stab wounds. [ 58 ] [ 59 ]

leader of the Caesarian Party [edit ]

In the agitation surrounding the assassination, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing Caesar ‘s death would be the beginning of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome. The conspirators, who styled themselves the Liberatores ( “ The Liberators ” ), had barricaded themselves on the Capitoline Hill for their own base hit. Though they believed Caesar ‘s death would restore the Republic, Caesar had been vastly democratic with the Roman middle and lower classes, who became enrage upon learning a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, as the sole consul, soon took the inaugural and seized the state treasury. Calpurnia, Caesar ‘s widow, presented him with Caesar ‘s personal papers and custody of his extensive property, clearly marking him as Caesar ‘s heir and drawing card of the cesarean cabal. [ 60 ] Caesar ‘s Master of the Horse Marcus Aemilius Lepidus marched over 6,000 troops into Rome on 16 March to restore order and to act as the bodyguards of the cesarean delivery cabal. Lepidus wanted to storm the Capitol, but Antony preferred a passive solution as a majority of both the Liberators and Caesar ‘s own supporters preferred a colony over civil war. [ 61 ] On 17 March, at Antony ‘s arrangement, the united states senate met to discuss a compromise, which, due to the bearing of Caesar ‘s veterans in the city, was quickly reached. Caesar ‘s assassins would be pardoned of their crimes and, in return, all of Caesar ‘s actions would be ratified. [ 62 ] In particular, the offices assigned to both Brutus and Cassius by Caesar were besides ratified. Antony besides agreed to accept the appointment of his rival Dolabella as his consular colleague to replace Caesar. [ 63 ] Having neither troops, money, nor democratic defend, the Liberatores were forced to accept Antony ‘s marriage proposal. This compromise was a big success for Antony, who managed to simultaneously appease Caesar ‘s veterans, reconcile the united states senate majority, and appear to the Liberatores as their partner and defender. [ 64 ]
Octavian, Julius Caesar ‘s adopted son. Antony would struggle with Octavian for leadership of the Caesarian party following Caesar’s assassination. On 19 March, Caesar ‘s will was opened and read. In it, Caesar posthumously adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius and named him his star heir. then lone nineteen years old and stationed with Caesar ‘s army in Macedonia, the young became a penis of Caesar ‘s julian kin, changing his list to “ Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ” ( augustus ) in accordance with the conventions of Roman borrowing. Though not the headman benefactive role, Antony did receive some bequests. [ 65 ] curtly after the compromise was reached, as a sign of thoroughly religion, Brutus, against the advice of Cassius and Cicero, agreed Caesar would be given a populace funeral and his will would be validated. Caesar ‘s funeral was held on 20 March. Antony, as Caesar ‘s faithful lieutenant and incumbent consul, was chosen to preside over the ceremony and to recite the elegy. During the demagogic actor’s line, he enumerated the deeds of Caesar and, publicly reading his will, detailed the donations Caesar had left to the Roman people. Antony then seized the blood-stained toga from Caesar ‘s body and presented it to the crowd. Worked into a ferocity by the bally spectacle, the assembly rioted. several buildings in the Forum and some houses of the conspirators were burned to the prime. Panicked, many of the conspirators fled Italy. [ 66 ] Under the guise of not being able to guarantee their safety, Antony relieved Brutus and Cassius of their judicial duties in Rome and alternatively assigned them responsibility for procuring pale yellow for Rome from Sicily and Asia. Such an assignment, in addition to being undeserving of their crying, would have kept them far from Rome and shifted the libra towards Antony. Refusing such secondary duties, the two traveled to Greece rather. additionally, Cleopatra left Rome to return to Egypt. Despite the provisions of Caesar ‘s will, Antony proceeded to act as drawing card of the cesarean faction, including appropriating for himself a fortune of Caesar ‘s luck rightfully belonging to Octavian. Antony enacted the Lex Antonia, which formally abolished the Dictatorship, in an undertake to consolidate his might by gaining the digest of the senatorial class. He besides enacted a total of laws he claimed to have found in Caesar ‘s papers to ensure his popularity with Caesar ‘s veterans, particularly by providing land grants to them. Lepidus, with Antony ‘s digest, was named Pontifex Maximus to succeed Caesar. To solidify the alliance between Antony and Lepidus, Antony ‘s daughter Antonia Prima was engaged to Lepidus ‘ son, besides named Lepidus. Surrounding himself with a bodyguard of over six thousand of Caesar ‘s veterans, Antony presented himself as Caesar ‘s genuine successor, largely ignoring Octavian. [ 67 ]

First conflict with augustus [edit ]

augustus arrived in Rome in May to claim his inheritance. Although Antony had amassed political digest, Octavian silent had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the cesarean delivery cabal. The senatorial Republicans increasingly viewed Antony as a new tyrant. Antony had lost the confirm of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine condition. [ 68 ] When Antony refused to relinquish Caesar ‘s huge fortune to him, augustus borrowed heavily to fulfill the bequests in Caesar ‘s will to the Roman people and to his veterans, arsenic well as to establish his own bodyguard of veterans. [ 69 ] This earned him the support of cesarean delivery sympathizers who hoped to use him as a mean of eliminating Antony. [ 70 ] The senate, and Cicero in particular, see Antony as the greater danger of the two. By summer 44 BC, Antony was in a unmanageable put due to his actions regarding his compromise with the Liberatores following Caesar ‘s character assassination. He could either denounce the Liberatores as murderers and alienate the senate or he could maintain his support for the compromise and risk betraying the bequest of Caesar, strengthening Octavian ‘s place. In either case, his situation as rule of Rome would be weakened. Roman historian Cassius Dio later recorded that while Antony, as consul, maintained the advantage in the kinship, the general affection of the Roman people was shifting to augustus due to his condition as Caesar ‘s son. [ 71 ] [ 72 ]
denarius of Marcus Antonius struck in 42 BC Supporting the senatorial cabal against Antony, Octavian, in September 44 BC, encouraged the leading senator Marcus Tullius Cicero to attack Antony in a serial of speeches portraying him as a menace to the republican order. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] Risk of civil war between Antony and Octavian grew. augustus continued to recruit Caesar ‘s veterans to his side, away from Antony, with two of Antony ‘s legions defecting in November 44 BC. At that meter, Octavian, only a private citizen, lacked legal authority to command the Republic ‘s armies, making his command illegal. With popular impression in Rome turning against him and his consular term nearing its end, Antony attempted to secure a friendly military assignment to secure an army to protect himself. The senate, as was customs, assigned Antony and Dolabella the provinces of Macedonia and Syria, respectively, to govern in 43 BC after their consular terms expired. Antony, however, objected to the assignment, preferring to govern Cisalpine Gaul which had been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar ‘s assassins. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] When Decimus refused to surrender his state, Antony marched north in December 44 BC with his remaining soldiers to take the state by impel, besieging Decimus at Mutina. [ 77 ] The senate, led by a ardent Cicero, denounced Antony ‘s actions and declared him an foe of the state. Ratifying Octavian ‘s extraordinary command on 1 January 43 BC, the senate dispatched him along with consul Hirtius and Pansa to defeat Antony and his exhaust five legions. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] Antony ‘s forces were defeated at the Battle of Mutina in April 43 BC, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving augustus in exclusive command of their armies, some eight legions. [ 80 ] [ 81 ]

The second Triumvirate [edit ]

Forming the alliance [edit ]

Denarius struck at Ephesus in 41 B.C. commemorating the Second Triumvirate. One on side is Octavian, later Caesar Augustus, and on the other is Antony With Antony defeated, the senate, hoping to eliminate augustus and the remainder of the Caesarian party, assigned command of the Republic ‘s legions to Decimus. Sextus Pompey, son of Caesar ‘s old equal Pompey Magnus, was given command of the Republic ‘s evanesce from his base in Sicily while Brutus and Cassius were granted the governorships of Macedonia and Syria respectively. These appointments attempted to renew the “ republican ” causal agent. [ 82 ] however, the eight legions serving under Octavian, composed largely of Caesar ‘s veterans, refused to follow one of Caesar ‘s murderers, allowing augustus to retain his command. meanwhile, Antony recovered his position by joining forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had been assigned the governorship of Transalpine Gaul and Nearer Spain. [ 83 ] Antony sent Lepidus to Rome to broker a placation. Though he was an ardent cesarean delivery, Lepidus had maintained friendly relations with the united states senate and with Sextus Pompey. His legions, however, cursorily joined Antony, giving him control over seventeen legions, the largest army in the West. [ 84 ]

 

Antony

 

Lepidus

 

augustus

 

Triumvirs jointly

 

Sextus Pompey

 

The Liberators

 

Rome ‘s customer kingdoms

 

Ptolemaic Egypt Map of the Roman Republic in 43 BC after the institution of the Second Triumvirate By mid-may, augustus began unavowed negotiations to form an alliance with Antony to provide a joined Caesarian party against the Liberators. Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Octavian dispatched emissaries to Rome in July 43 BC demand he be appointed consul to replace Hirtius and Pansa and that the decree declare Antony a public enemy be rescinded. [ 85 ] When the senate refused, augustus marched on Rome with his eight legions and assumed control of the city in August 43 BC. augustus proclaimed himself consul, rewarded his soldiers, and then set about prosecuting Caesar ‘s murderers. By the lex Pedia, all of the conspirators and Sextus Pompey were convicted ″in absentia″ and declared public enemies. then, at the fomentation of Lepidus, Octavian went to Cisalpine Gaul to meet Antony. In November 43 BC, Octavian, Lepidus, and Antony met near Bononia. [ 86 ] After two days of discussions, the group agreed to establish a three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years, known as the “ Three Men for the Restoration of the Republic ” ( Latin : “ Triumviri Rei publicae Constituendae ” ), known to modern historians as the Second Triumvirate. They shared military command of the Republic ‘s armies and provinces among themselves : Antony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain, and Octavian ( as the junior partner ) Africa. They jointly governed Italy. The Triumvirate would have to conquer the rest of Rome ‘s holdings ; Brutus and Cassius held the eastern Mediterranean, and Sextus Pompey held the Mediterranean islands. [ 87 ] On 27 November 43 BC, the Triumvirate was formally established by a new law, the lex Titia. augustus and Antony reinforced their alliance through Octavian ‘s marriage to Antony ‘s stepdaughter, Claudia .
The vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura Y Montaner, 1888, depicting Fulvia, Antony ‘s wife, inspecting the discerp pass of Cicero The basal aim of the Triumvirate was to avenge Caesar ‘s death and to make war upon his murderers. Before marching against Brutus and Cassius in the East, the Triumvirs issued proscriptions against their enemies in Rome. The Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla had taken similar carry through to purge Rome of his opponents in 82 BC. The forbidden were named on public lists, stripped of citizenship, and outlawed. Their wealth and property were confiscated by the country, and rewards were offered to anyone who secured their halt or death. With such encouragements, the banishment produced madly results ; two thousand Roman knights were executed, and one third of the united states senate, among them Cicero, who was executed on 7 December. The confiscations helped replenish the State Treasury, which had been depleted by Caesar ‘s civil war the decade before ; when this seemed insufficient to fund the at hand war against Brutus and Cassius, the Triumvirs imposed new taxes, particularly on the affluent. By January 42 BC the banishment had ended ; it had lasted two months, and though less bloody than Sulla ‘s, it traumatized Roman company. A number of those named and outlawed had fled to either Sextus Pompey in Sicily or to the Liberators in the East. [ 88 ] Senators who swore loyalty to the Triumvirate were allowed to keep their positions ; on 1 January 42 BC, the senate formally deified Caesar as “ The Divine Julius “, and confirmed Antony ‘s side as his high priest .

War against the Liberators [edit ]

due to the infighting within the Triumvirate during 43 BC, Brutus and Cassius had assumed manipulate of much of Rome ‘s eastern territories, and amassed a large army. Before the Triumvirate could cross the Adriatic Sea into Greece where the Liberators had stationed their army, the Triumvirate had to address the menace posed by Sextus Pompey and his evanesce. From his base in Sicily, Sextus raided the italian coast and blockaded the Triumvirs. Octavian ‘s friend and admiral Quintus Salvidienus Rufus thwarted an attack by Sextus against the southern italian mainland at Rhegium, but Salvidienus was then defeated in the resulting naval struggle because of the inexperience of his gang. lone when Antony arrived with his evanesce was the blockade broken. Though the barricade was defeated, master of Sicily remained in Sextus ‘ hand, but the frustration of the Liberators was the Triumvirate ‘s beginning precedence .
First Battle of Philippi – 3 October 42 BC second Battle of Philippi – 23 October 42 BC In the summer of 42 BC, Octavian and Antony sailed for Macedonia to face the Liberators with nineteen legions, the huge majority of their united states army [ 89 ] ( approximately 100,000 regular infantry plus supporting cavalry and irregular accessory units ), leaving Rome under the administration of Lepidus. Likewise, the united states army of the Liberators besides commanded an united states army of nineteen legions ; their legions, however, were not at wax military capability while the legions of Antony and Octavian were. [ 89 ] While the Triumvirs commanded a larger number of infantry, the Liberators commanded a larger cavalry contingent. [ 90 ] The Liberators, who controlled Macedonia, did not wish to engage in a critical battle, but preferably to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the Triumvirs ‘ communications with their issue base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering greek cities to swell their war-chest and had gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the Eastern provinces and levies from Rome ‘s node kingdoms. Brutus and Cassius held a position on the high land along both sides of the via Egnatia west of the city of Philippi. The south position was anchored to a purportedly impassable marsh, while the north was bordered by impervious hills. They had enough of time to fortify their position with a rampart and a trench. Brutus put his camp on the north while Cassius occupied the confederacy of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived curtly and positioned his united states army on the south of the via Egnatia, while augustus put his legions north of the road. Antony offered struggle several times, but the Liberators were not lured to leave their defensive stand. therefore, Antony tried to secretly outflank the Liberators ‘ position through the marshes in the south. This provoked a pitch struggle on 3 October 42 BC. Antony commanded the Triumvirate ‘s united states army due to Octavian ‘s illness on the day, with Antony directly controlling the right flank opposite Cassius. Because of his health, augustus remained in camp while his lieutenants assumed a position on the leave flank face-to-face Brutus. In the resulting first conflict of Philippi, Antony defeated Cassius and captured his camp while Brutus overran Octavian ‘s troops and penetrated into the Triumvirs ‘ camp but was unable to capture the disgusted Octavian. The battle was a tactical guide but due to inadequate communications Cassius believed the battle was a complete frustration and committed suicide to prevent being captured. Brutus assumed sole command of the Liberator army and preferred a war of grinding over open conflict. His officers, however, were dissatisfied with these defensive tactics and his cesarean delivery veterans threatened to defect, forcing Brutus to give battle at the second conflict of Philippi on 23 October. While the battle was initially evenly matched, Antony ‘s leadership routed Brutus ‘ forces. Brutus committed suicide the sidereal day after the kill and the remainder of his army swear commitment to the Triumvirate. Over fifty thousand Romans died in the two battles. While Antony treated the losers mildly, augustus deal cruelly with his prisoners and even beheaded Brutus ‘ cadaver. [ 91 ] [ 92 ] [ 93 ] The battles of Philippi ended the civil war in favor of the caesarian faction. With the get the better of of the Liberators, only Sextus Pompey and his evanesce remained to challenge the Triumvirate ‘s operate over the Republic .

victor of the Roman East [edit ]

division of the Republic [edit ]

 

Antony

 

Lepidus

 

augustus

 

Triumvirs jointly

 

Sextus Pompey

 

Parthian empire

 

Rome ‘s client kingdoms

 

Ptolemaic Egypt Map of the Roman Republic in 42 BC after the Battle of Philippi The victory at Philippi left the members of the Triumvirate as masters of the Republic, save Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Upon returning to Rome, the Triumvirate repartitioned rule of Rome ‘s provinces among themselves, with Antony as the open senior spouse. He received the largest distribution, governing all of the Eastern provinces while retaining Gaul in the West. Octavian ‘s position improved, as he received Spain, which was taken from Lepidus. Lepidus was then reduced to holding entirely Africa, and he assumed a intelligibly third function in the Triumvirate. rule over Italy remained single, but Octavian was assigned the unmanageable and unpopular tax of demobilizing their veterans and providing them with land distributions in Italy. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Antony assumed direct control of the East while he installed one of his lieutenants as the rule of Gaul. During his absence, several of his supporters held key positions in Rome to protect his interests there. The East was in need of reorganization after the dominion of the Liberators in the previous years. In addition, Rome contended with the Parthian Empire for dominance of the Near East. The parthian menace to the Triumvirate ‘s rule was pressing due to the fact that the Parthians supported the Liberators in the recent civil war, help which included the issue troops at Philippi. [ 96 ] As ruler of the East, Antony besides assumed responsibility for overseeing Caesar ‘s aforethought invasion of Parthia to avenge the kill of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. In 42 BC, the Roman East was composed of several directly controlled provinces and node kingdoms. The provinces included Macedonia, Asia, Bithynia, Cilicia, Cyprus, Syria, and Cyrenaica. approximately half of the eastern territory was controlled by Rome ‘s client kingdoms, nominally freelancer kingdoms submit to Roman steering. These kingdoms included :

Activities in the East [edit ]

Antony spent the winter of 42 BC in Athens, where he ruled liberally towards the greek cities. A proclaim philhellene ( “ Friend of all things Greek ” ), Antony supported greek culture to win the loyalty of the inhabitants of the Greek East. He attended religious festivals and ceremonies, including initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries, [ 97 ] a privy cult dedicated to the idolize of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Beginning in 41 BC, he traveled across the Aegean Sea to Anatolia, leaving his acquaintance Lucius Marcius Censorius as governor of Macedonia and Achaea. Upon his arrival in Ephesus in Asia, Antony was worshiped as the idol Dionysus born afresh. [ 98 ] He demanded heavy taxes from the Hellenic cities in return key for his pro-Greek polish policies, but exempted those cities which had remained patriotic to Caesar during the civil war and compensated those cities which had suffered under Caesar ‘s assassins, including Rhodes, Lycia, and Tarsus. He granted pardons to all Roman nobles living in the East who had supported the Optimate cause, except for Caesar ‘s assassins. Ruling from Ephesus, Antony consolidated Rome ‘s hegemony in the East, receiving envoys from Rome ‘s customer kingdoms and intervening in their dynastic affairs, extracting enormous fiscal “ gifts ” from them in the process. Though King Deiotarus of Galatia supported Brutus and Cassius following Caesar ‘s assassination, Antony allowed him to retain his placement. He besides confirmed Ariarathes X as king of Cappadocia after the murder of his brother Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia by Cassius before the Battle of Philippi. In Hasmonean Judea, several jewish delegations complained to Antony of the coarse predominate of Phasael and Herod, the sons of Rome ‘s assassinated head jewish curate Antipater the Idumaean. After Herod offered him a big fiscal endowment, Antony confirmed the brothers in their positions. subsequently, influenced by the beauty and charms of Glaphyra, the widow of Archelaüs ( once the high priest of Comana ), Antony deposed Ariarathes, and appointed Glaphyra ‘s son, Archelaüs, to rule Cappadocia. [ 99 ]
Antony and Cleopatra (1883) by ( 1883 ) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicting Antony ‘s touch with Cleopatra in 41 BC. In October 41, Antony requested Rome ‘s head eastern vassal, the queen of Ptolemaic Egypt Cleopatra, meet him at Tarsus in Cilicia. Antony had inaugural met a young Cleopatra while campaigning in Egypt in 55 BC and again in 48 BC when Caesar had backed her as fagot of Egypt over the claims of her half sister Arsinoe. Cleopatra would bear Caesar a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC and the two living in Rome as Caesar ‘s guests until his assassination in 44 BC. After Caesar ‘s assassination, Cleopatra and Caesarion returned to Egypt, where she named the child as her co-ruler. In 42 BC, the Triumvirate, in recognition for Cleopatra ‘s serve towards Publius Cornelius Dolabella in opposition to the Liberators, granted official recognition to Caesarion ‘s status as king of Egypt. Arriving in Tarsus aboard her brilliant ship, Cleopatra invited Antony to a august feast to solidify their alliance. [ note 3 ] As the most potent of Rome ‘s eastern vassals, Egypt was essential in Rome ‘s planned military invasion of the Parthian Empire. At Cleopatra ‘s request, Antony ordered the execution of Arsinoe, who, though marched in Caesar ‘s triumphal parade in 46 BC, [ 100 ] had been granted chancel at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Antony and Cleopatra then spent the winter of 41 BC together in Alexandria. Cleopatra bore Antony match children, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II, in 40 BC, and a third base, Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 36 BC. Antony besides granted formal control over Cyprus, which had been under egyptian control since 47 BC during the agitation of Caesar ‘s civil war, to Cleopatra in 40 BC as a giving for her commitment to Rome. [ 101 ] Antony, in his first months in the East, raised money, reorganized his troops, and secured the confederation of Rome ‘s client kingdoms. He besides promoted himself as Hellenistic ruler, which won him the affection of the greek peoples of the East but besides made him the target of Octavian ‘s propaganda in Rome. According to some ancient authors, Antony led a carefree life of luxury in Alexandria. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] Upon learning the parthian Empire had invaded Rome ‘s territory in early 40 BC, Antony left Egypt for Syria to confront the invasion. however, after a short stay in Tyre, he was forced to sail with his army to Italy to confront augustus due to Octavian ‘s war against Antony ‘s wife and brother .

Fulvia ‘s Civil War [edit ]

Following the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, while Antony was stationed in the East, Octavian had authority over the West. [ note 4 ] Octavian ‘s foreman responsibility was distributing bring to tens of thousands of Caesar ‘s veterans who had fought for the Triumvirate. additionally, tens of thousands of veterans who had fought for the Republican cause in the war besides required domain grants. This was necessary to ensure they would not support a political opposition of the Triumvirate. [ 104 ] however, the Triumvirs did not possess sufficient collectivist state to allot to the veterans. This left augustus with two choices : alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their kingdom, or alienating many Roman soldiers who might back a military rebellion against the Triumvirate ‘s rule. Octavian chose the former. [ 105 ] As many as eighteen Roman towns through Italy were affected by the confiscations of 41 BC, with stallion populations driven out. [ 106 ] Led by Fulvia, the wife of Antony, the senators grew hostile towards augustus over the issue of the land confiscations. According to the ancient historian Cassius Dio, Fulvia was the most brawny woman in Rome at the clock time. [ 107 ] According to Dio, while Publius Servilius Vatia and Lucius Antonius were the consul for the class 41 BC, very office was vested in Fulvia. As the mother-in-law of augustus and the wife of Antony, no action was taken by the senate without her support. [ 108 ] Fearing Octavian ‘s estate grants would cause the loyalty of the caesarian veterans to shift away from Antony, Fulvia traveled constantly with her children to the new veteran settlements in order to remind the veterans of their debt to Antony. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] Fulvia besides attempted to delay the farming settlements until Antony returned to Rome, so that he could share credit for the settlements. With the avail of Antony ‘s buddy, the consul of 41 BC Lucius Antonius, Fulvia encouraged the senate to oppose Octavian ‘s land policies .
The conflict between augustus and Fulvia caused bang-up political and social agitation throughout Italy. Tensions escalated into open war, however, when augustus divorced Claudia, Fulvia ‘s daughter from her first conserve Publius Clodius Pulcher. Outraged, Fulvia, supported by Lucius, raised an army to fight for Antony ‘s rights against Octavian. According to the ancient historian Appian, Fulvia ‘s headman argue for the war was her jealousy of Antony ‘s affairs with Cleopatra in Egypt and desire to draw Antony back to Rome. [ 111 ] Lucius and Fulvia took a political and warlike gamble in opposing augustus and Lepidus, however, as the Roman army still depended on the Triumvirs for their salaries. [ 106 ] Lucius and Fulvia, supported by their army, marched on Rome and promised the people an end to the Triumvirate in party favor of Antony ‘s lone rule. however, when augustus returned to the city with his army, the pair were forced to retreat to Perusia in Etruria. augustus placed the city under siege while Lucius waited for Antony ‘s legions in Gaul to come to his aid. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] Away in the East and embarrassed by Fulvia ‘s actions, Antony gave no instructions to his legions. [ 114 ] [ note 5 ] Without reinforcements, Lucius and Fulvia were forced to surrender in February 40 BC. While augustus pardoned Lucius for his function in the war and tied granted him command in Spain as his head deputy there, Fulvia was forced to flee to Greece with her children. With the war over, Octavian was left in sole control over Italy. When Antony ‘s governor of Gaul died, augustus took over his legions there, foster strengthening his control over the West. [ 115 ] Despite the Parthian Empire ‘s invasion of Rome ‘s eastern territories, Fulvia ‘s civil war forced Antony to leave the East and return to Rome in arrange to secure his side. Meeting her in Athens, Antony rebuked Fulvia for her actions before sailing on to Italy with his army to confront Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved indefensible for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become crucial figures politically, refused to fight ascribable to their shared service under Caesar. The legions under their command followed suit. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] meanwhile, in Sicyon, Fulvia died of a sudden and nameless illness. [ 118 ] Fulvia ‘s death and the mutiny of their soldiers allowed the triumvirs to effect a reconciliation through a newly power sharing agreement in September 40 BC. The Roman world was redivided, with Antony receiving the eastern provinces, Octavian the western provinces, and Lepidus relegated to a intelligibly junior put as governor of Africa. This agreement, known as the Treaty of Brundisium, reinforced the Triumvirate and allowed Antony to begin preparing for Caesar ‘s long-awaited campaign against the parthian Empire. As a symbol of their renewed alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian ‘s sister, in October 40 BC .

Antony ‘s Parthian War [edit ]

Roman–Parthian relations [edit ]

The rise of the Parthian Empire in the third hundred BC and Rome ‘s expansion into the eastern Mediterranean during the second hundred BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of disruptive and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a ceaseless threat. influence over the buffer state of the Kingdom of Armenia, located to the northeast of Roman Syria, was frequently a central write out in the Roman-Parthian battle. In 95 BC, Tigranes the Great, a parthian ally, became king. Tigranes would late aid Mithradates of Pontus against Rome before being decisively defeated by Pompey in 66 BC. [ 119 ] Thereafter, with his son Artavasdes in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC. Rome then released Artavasdes, who succeeded his beget as king. In 53 BC, Rome ‘s governor of Syria, Marcus Licinius Crassus, led an dispatch across the Euphrates River into parthian territory to confront the parthian Shah Orodes II. Artavasdes II offered Crassus the care of closely forty thousand troops to assist his parthian excursion on the stipulate that Crassus invade through Armenia as the safe route. [ 120 ] Crassus refused, choosing rather the more aim route by crossing the Euphrates directly into desert parthian territory. Crassus ‘ actions proved black as his army was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus ‘ frustration forced Armenia to shift its commitment to Parthia, with Artavasdes II ‘s sister marrying Orodes ‘ son and successor Pacorus. [ 121 ] In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the holocene civil war, to avenge Crassus ‘ kill at Carrhae, and particularly to match the glory of Alexander the Great for himself. [ 122 ] Before Caesar could launch his crusade, however, he was assassinated. As partially of the compromise between Antony and the Republicans to restore arrange following Caesar ‘s mangle, Publius Cornelius Dolabella was assigned the governorship of Syria and command over Caesar ‘s aforethought Parthian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and the Republicans were forced to flee to the East. The Republicans directed Quintus Labienus to attract the Parthians to their side in the leave war against Antony and Octavian. After the Republicans were defeated at the Battle of Philippi, Labienus joined the Parthians. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] Despite Rome ‘s home agitation during the time, the Parthians did not immediately benefit from the power vacuum in the East due to Orodes II ‘s reluctance despite Labienus ‘ urgings to the reverse. [ 125 ] In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered Palmyra on the Roman-Parthian surround. [ 125 ] Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the syrian frame against parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troop and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade .

parthian invasion [edit ]

A denarius of both Octavianus and Marcus Antonius struck in 41 BC A parthian united states army, led by Orodes II ‘s eldest son Pacorus, invaded Syria in early on 40 BC. Labienus, the Republican ally of Brutus and Cassius, accompanied him to advise him and to rally the former Republican soldiers stationed in Syria to the parthian cause. Labienus recruited many of the erstwhile Republican soldiers to the Parthian campaign in opposition to Antony. The joint Parthian–Roman force, after initial success in Syria, separated to lead their offensive in two directions : Pacorus marched south toward Hasmonean Judea while Labienus crossed the Taurus Mountains to the north into Cilicia. Labienus conquered southerly Anatolia with little underground. The Roman governor of Asia, Lucius Munatius Plancus, a partisan of Antony, was forced to flee his state, allowing Labienus to recruit the Roman soldiers stationed there. For his part, Pacorus advanced south to Phoenicia and Palestine. In Hasmonean Judea, the expatriate prince Antigonus allied himself with the Parthians. When his brother, Rome ‘s client king Hyrcanus II, refused to accept parthian domination, he was deposed in favor of Antigonus as Parthia ‘s node king in Judea. Pacorus ‘ seduction had captured much of the syrian and palestinian inner, with much of the Phoenician coast occupied vitamin a well. The city of Tyre remained the last major Roman outpost in the region. [ 126 ] Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of the civil war between his wife and augustus, he was forced to return to Italy with his army to secure his situation in Rome quite than defeat the Parthians. [ 126 ] alternatively, Antony dispatched Publius Ventidius Bassus to check the parthian overture. Arriving in the East in spring 39 BC, Ventidius surprised Labienus near the Taurus Mountains, claiming victory at the Cilician Gates. Ventidius ordered Labienus executed as a double-crosser and the once disaffected Roman soldiers under his command were reincorporated under Antony ‘s control condition. He then met a parthian united states army at the frame between Cilicia and Syria, defeating it and killing a large helping of the parthian soldiers at the Amanus Pass. Ventidius ‘ actions temporarily halted the parthian advance and restored Roman authority in the East, forcing Pacorus to abandon his conquests and return to Parthia. [ 127 ] In the spring of 38 BC, the Parthians resumed their offensive with Pacorus leading an army across the Euphrates. Ventidius, in ordering to gain time, leaked disinformation to Pacorus implying that he should cross the Euphrates River at their common ford. Pacorus did not trust this information and decided to cross the river a lot farther downriver ; this was what Ventidius hoped would occur and gave him fourth dimension to get his forces fix. [ 128 ] The Parthians faced no confrontation and proceeded to the town of Gindarus in Cyrrhestica where Ventidius ‘ united states army was waiting. At the Battle of Cyrrhestica, Ventidius inflicted an overwhelm get the better of against the Parthians which resulted in the death of Pacorus. Overall, the Roman army had achieved a dispatch victory with Ventidius ‘ three consecutive victories forcing the Parthians bet on across the Euphrates. [ 129 ] Pacorus ‘ end threw the parthian Empire into chaos. Shah Orodes II, overwhelmed by the grief of his son ‘s death, appointed his younger son Phraates IV as his successor. however, Phraates IV assassinated Orodes II in former 38 BC, succeeding him on the throne. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Ventidius feared Antony ‘s wrath if he invaded parthian district, thereby stealing his glory ; so alternatively he attacked and subdued the eastern kingdoms, which had revolted against Roman dominance following the black frustration of Crassus at Carrhae. [ 132 ] One such rebel was King Antiochus of Commagene, whom he besieged in Samosata. Antiochus tried to make peace with Ventidius, but Ventidius told him to approach Antony immediately. After peace was concluded, Antony sent Ventidius back to Rome where he celebrated a wallow, the first Roman to triumph over the Parthians. [ bill 6 ]

conflict with Sextus Pompey [edit ]

Antony and Octavia on the obverse of a tetradrachm issued at Ephesus in 39 BC. Antony and his brother-in-law, Octavian, enacted a modern treaty that class which redivided see over the Roman earth. While Antony and the other Triumvirs ratified the Treaty of Brundisium to redivide the Roman global among themselves, the rebel cosmopolitan Sextus Pompey, the son of Caesar ‘s rival Pompey the Great, was largely ignored. From his stronghold on Sicily, he continued his piratical activities across Italy and blocked the dispatch of grain to Rome. The lack of food in Rome caused the populace to blame the Triumvirate and shift its sympathies towards Pompey. This pressure forced the Triumvirs to meet with Sextus in early 39 BC. [ 133 ] While Octavian wanted an end to the ongoing blockade of Italy, Antony sought peace in the West in order to make the Triumvirate ‘s legions available for his serve in his aforethought campaign against the Parthians. Though the Triumvirs rejected Sextus ‘ initial request to replace Lepidus as the third base man within the Triumvirate, they did grant early concessions. Under the terms of the Treaty of Misenum, Sextus was allowed to retain master over Sicily and Sardinia, with the provinces of Corsica and Greece being added to his territory. He was besides promised a future position with the Priestly College of Augurs and the consulship for 35 BC. In exchange, Sextus agreed to end his naval blockade of Italy, supply Rome with texture, and halt his piracy of Roman merchant ships. [ 134 ] however, the most important planning of the Treaty was the end of the banishment the Trimumvirate had begun in late 43 BC. Many of the forbid senators, rather than face death, fled to Sicily seeking Sextus ‘ protection. With the exception of those creditworthy for Caesar ‘s assassination, all those proscribed were allowed to return to Rome and promised compensation. This caused Sextus to lose many valuable allies as the once expatriate senators gradually aligned themselves with either augustus or Antony. To secure the peace, augustus betrothed his three-year-old nephew and Antony ‘s stepson Marcus Claudius Marcellus to Sextus ‘ daughter Pompeia. [ 135 ] With peace in the West secured, Antony planned to retaliate against Parthia by invading their territory. Under an agreement with Octavian, Antony would be supplied with extra troops for his campaign. With this military function on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the Greek god Dionysus in 39 BC .
The peace with Sextus was ephemeral, however. When Sextus demanded control all over Greece as the agreement provided, Antony demanded the state ‘s tax revenues be to fund the parthian crusade. Sextus refused. [ 136 ] meanwhile, Sextus ‘ admiral Menas betrayed him, shifting his loyalty to Octavian and thereby granting him control of Corsica, Sardinia, three of Sextus ‘ legions, and a larger naval force. These actions worked to renew Sextus ‘ barricade of Italy, preventing augustus from sending the promise troops to Antony for the Parthian campaign. This fresh stay caused Antony to quarrel with augustus, forcing Octavia to mediate a armistice between them. Under the Treaty of Tarentum, Antony provided a large naval push for Octavian ‘s use against Sextus while Octavian promised to raise modern legions for Antony to support his invasion of Parthia. [ 137 ] As the term of the Triumvirate was set to expire at the end of 38 BC, the two unilaterally extended their term of office another five years until 33 BC without seeking approval of the senate or the democratic assemblies. To seal the Treaty, Antony ‘s elder son Marcus Antonius Antyllus, then only 6 years old, was betrothed to Octavian ‘s only daughter Julia, then only an baby. With the Treaty signed, Antony returned to the East, leaving Octavia in Italy .

Reconquest of Judea [edit ]

With Publius Ventidius Bassus returned to Rome in triumph for his defensive campaign against the Parthians, Antony appointed Gaius Sosius as the new governor of Syria and Cilicia in early 38 BC. Antony, inactive in the West negociate with Octavian, ordered Sosius to depose Antigonus, who had been installed in the holocene parthian invasion as the rule of Hasmonean Judea, and to make Herod the modern Roman customer king in the region. Years before in 40 BC, the Roman senate had proclaimed Herod “ King of the Jews ” because Herod had been a firm garter of Hyrcanus II, Rome ‘s previous client king before the parthian invasion, and was from a kin with long standing connections to Rome. [ 138 ] The Romans hoped to use Herod as a bulwark against the Parthians in the coming campaign. [ 139 ] Advancing south, Sosius captured the island-city of Aradus on the coast of Phoenicia by the end of 38 BC. The follow year, the Romans besieged Jerusalem. After a forty-day siege, the Roman soldiers stormed the city and, despite Herod ‘s pleas for chasteness, acted without mercy, pillaging and killing all in their path, prompting Herod to complain to Antony. [ 140 ] Herod finally resorted to bribing Sosius and his troops in order that they would not leave him “ baron of a defect ”. [ 141 ] Antigonus was forced to surrender to Sosius, and was sent to Antony for the exultant emanation in Rome. Herod, however, fearing that Antigonus would win back in Rome, bribed Antony to execute Antigonus. Antony, who recognized that Antigonus would remain a permanent wave threat to Herod, ordered him beheaded in Antioch. nowadays secure on his throne, Herod would rule the Herodian Kingdom until his end in 4 BC, and would be an ever-faithful client baron of Rome .

parthian Campaign [edit ]

With the Triumvirate renewed in 38 BC, Antony returned to Athens in the winter with his fresh wife Octavia, the sister of Octavian. With the character assassination of the parthian king Orodes II by his son Phraates IV, who then seized the Parthian enthrone, in late 38 BC, Antony prepared to invade Parthia himself .
Antony, however, realized Octavian had no intention of sending him the extra legions he had promised under the Treaty of Tarentum. To supplement his own armies, Antony rather looked to Rome ‘s principal vassal in the East : his fan Cleopatra. In addition to meaning fiscal resources, Cleopatra ‘s backing of his parthian crusade allowed Antony to amass the largest army rome had ever assembled in the East. Wintering in Antioch during 37, Antony ‘s combine Roman–Egyptian united states army numbered some 200,000, including sixteen legions ( approximately 160,000 soldiers ) plus an extra 40,000 auxiliaries. [ citation needed ] Such a force was twice the size of Marcus Licinius Crassus ‘s army from his fail parthian invasion of 53 BC and three times those of Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the Mithridatic Wars. [ citation needed ] The size of his army indicated Antony ‘s intention to conquer Parthia, or at least receive its submission by capturing the parthian capital of Ecbatana. Antony ‘s rear was protected by Rome ‘s client kingdoms in Anatolia, Syria, and Judea, while the node kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Commagene would provide supplies along the border. Antony ‘s foremost aim for his invasion was the Kingdom of Armenia. Ruled by King Artavasdes II of Armenia, Armenia had been an ally of Rome since the kill of Tigranes the Great by Pompey the Great in 66 BC during the Third Mithridatic War. however, following Marcus Licinius Crassus ‘s defeat at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, Armenia was forced into an alliance with Parthia due to Rome ‘s sabotage position in the East. Antony dispatched Publius Canidius Crassus to Armenia, receiving Artavasdes II ‘s resignation without opposition. Canidius then led an invasion into the Transcaucasia, subduing Iberia. There, Canidius forced the iberian King Pharnavaz II into an alliance against Zober, baron of neighboring Albania, subduing the kingdom and reducing it to a Roman protectorate. With Armenia and the Caucasus secured, Antony marched confederacy, crossing into the parthian province of Media Atropatene. Though Antony desired a pitch battle, the Parthians would not engage, allowing Antony to march deep into parthian district by mid-august of 36 BC. This constrained Antony to leave his logistics train in the wish of two legions ( approximately 10,000 soldiers ), which was then attacked and completely destroyed by the parthian army before Antony could rescue them. Though the armenian King Artavasdes II and his cavalry were award during the massacre, they did not intervene. Despite the ambush, Antony continued the campaign. however, Antony was soon forced to retreat in mid-october after a fail two-month siege of the peasant capital. The retreat soon proved a disaster as Antony ‘s demoralized army faced increasing supply difficulties in the mountainous terrain during winter while constantly being harassed by the parthian army. According to the greek historian Plutarch, eighteen battles were fought between the retreating Romans and the Parthians during the month-long march back to Armenia, with approximately 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry dying during the retreat alone. once in Armenia, Antony quickly marched back to Syria to protect his interests there by former 36 BC, losing an extra 8,000 soldiers along the room. In all, two-fifths of his original army ( some 80,000 men ) had died during his fail campaign. [ 142 ]

Antony and Cleopatra [edit ]

meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. augustus forced Lepidus to resign after the older triumvir attempted to take control of Sicily after the defeat of Sextus. now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the traditional Republican gentry to his side. He married Livia and started to attack Antony in order to raise himself to power. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the easy queen of Egypt. Antony was accused of everything, but most of all, of “ going native “, an inexcusable crime to the gallant Romans. several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra. [ 143 ]
Donations of Alexandria (by Mark Antony to Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC.

 

Unallotted Roman territory

 

Donations to Cleopatra ‘s Children

 

Cleopatra ‘s Original Kingdommap of the(by Mark Antony to Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC. again with egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the restitution, a mock Roman triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a medley of Rome ‘s most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very significant political instruction. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his confederation with Octavian. He distributed kingdoms among his children : Alexander Helios was named king of Armenia, Media and Parthia ( territories which were not for the most partially under the see of Rome ), his counterpart Cleopatra Selene got Cyrenaica and Libya, and the young Ptolemy Philadelphus was awarded Syria and Cilicia. As for Cleopatra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt, to rule with Caesarion ( Ptolemy XV Caesar, son of Cleopatra by Julius Caesar ), King of Kings and King of Egypt. Most crucial of all, Caesarion was declared lawful son and successor of Caesar. These proclamations were known as the Donations of Alexandria and caused a fateful breach in Antony ‘s relations with Rome. While the distribution of nations among Cleopatra ‘s children was hardly a compromising gesture, it did not pose an immediate terror to Octavian ‘s political side. Far more dangerous was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar ‘s name. Octavian ‘s foundation of power was his connection with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and commitment of the legions. To see this commodious situation attacked by a child have a bun in the oven by the richest womanhood in the earth was something Octavian could not accept. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed. Another civil war was beginning. During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony ( in Egypt ) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social nouveau-riche, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges : of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots, as was Rome ‘s custom, and of starting wars against foreign nations ( Armenia and Parthia ) without the consent of the senate. Antony was besides held creditworthy for Sextus Pompey ‘s execution without a trial. In 32 BC, the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome ‘s internecine bloodshed. Both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, and a third of the united states senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece .
In 31 BC, the war started. augustus ‘s general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of augustus with the legions secured the desertion of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On 2 September, the naval Battle of Actium took position. Antony and Cleopatra ‘s dark blue was overwhelmed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships .

death [edit ]

augustus, now close to absolute exponent, invaded Egypt in August, 30 BC, assisted by Agrippa. With no other recourse to escape to, Antony stabbed himself with his sword in the mistake impression that Cleopatra had already done thus. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alert, his friends brought him to Cleopatra ‘s repository in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms. Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony ‘s burying rites after she had been captured by Octavian. Realising that she was destined for Octavian ‘s exuberate in Rome, she made several attempts to take her life and finally succeeded in mid-august. augustus had Caesarion and Antyllus killed, but he spared Iullus angstrom well as Antony ‘s children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome .

Aftermath and bequest [edit ]

Cicero ‘s son, Cicero Minor, announced Antony ‘s death to the senate. [ 146 ] Antony ‘s honours were revoked and his statues removed, [ 147 ] but he was not subject to a complete damnatio memoriae. [ 148 ] Cicero Minor besides made a decree that no member of the Antonii would ever bear the name Marcus again. [ 149 ] “ In this way Heaven entrusted the class of Cicero the final acts in the punishment of Antony. ” [ 150 ] When Antony died, augustus became uncontested ruler of Rome. In the following years, augustus, who was known as Augustus after 27 BC, managed to accumulate in his person all administrative, political, and military offices. When Augustus died in AD 14, his political powers passed to his adopted son Tiberius ; the Roman Empire had begun. The rise of Caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most brawny adherents efficaciously ended the credibility of the Roman oligarchy as a governing office and ensured that all future baron struggles would centre upon which one individual would achieve supreme control of the government, eliminating the united states senate and the former magisterial social organization as important focus of ability in these conflicts. thus, in history, Antony appears as one of Caesar ‘s independent adherents, he and augustus Augustus being the two men around whom exponent coalesced following the character assassination of Caesar, and last as one of the three men chiefly responsible for the demise of the Roman Republic. [ 151 ]

Marriages and publish [edit ]

fragmental portrayal raid from Smyrna thought to depict Octavia, sister of augustus and Antony ‘s wife Antony was known to have an obsession with women and arouse. [ 152 ] [ 153 ] He had many mistresses ( including Cytheris ) and was married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, Octavia and Cleopatra. He left a number of children. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Through his daughters by Octavia, he would be ancestor to the Roman Emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero .

Descendants [edit ]

Through his daughters by Octavia, he was the agnate capital grandfather of Roman Emperor Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, and both maternal great-great-grandfather and paternal great-great uncle of the Emperor Nero of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Through his eldest daughter, he was ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman node kingdom, arsenic well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony was ancestor to the royal syndicate of Mauretania, another Roman node kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he was ancestor to several celebrated Roman statesmen .

artistic portrayals [edit ]

Works in which the character of Mark Antony plays a cardinal character :

Novels [edit ]

poetry [edit ]

See besides [edit ]

• Flamen Divi Julii, priest of the cult of Caesar, of which Mark Antony was the first to serve.
• Antonia gens, the ancestral gens of Mark Antony.

Notes [edit ]

1. ^Fasti Verulani (c. 17–37 AD) for 14 January = Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.397–98, as cited by Phoenix 28.2 (1974), p. 217, note 24. The religious prohibition placed by dies vitiosus (“defective” day), is explained by Linderski, “The Augural Law”, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–88. 14 January is accepted as Antony’s birthday also by Plutarch: Life of Antony (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 299, commentary to Antony Antonia Augusta (Routledge, 1992), p. 11; Mark Antony (Tempus, 1998), p. ii; Antony and Cleopatra (Yale University Press, 2010), Claudius Wurzburger Jahrbucher fur die Altertumswissenschaft 4 (1978), pp. 211–13, proposed that a birth date of 28 March for Drusus would resolve the chronological difficulties. Radke’s proposal is summarized in English by the Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome (University of Michigan Press, 1995), vol. 40, p. 56, note 48. As recorded by a calendar inscription known as the ( c. 17–37 AD ) for 14 January = Degrassi 13.2.397–98, as cited by Jerzy Linderski and Anna Kaminska-Linderski, “ The Quaestorship of Marcus Antonius, ” 28.2 ( 1974 ), p. 217, note 24. The religious prohibition placed by Augustus on the day, marked as a ( “ defective ” sidereal day ), is explained by Linderski, “ The Augural Law ”, II.16 ( 1986 ), pp. 2187–88. 14 January is accepted as Antony ‘s birthday besides by C.B.R. Pelling ( Cambridge University Press, 1988 ), p. 299, comment to Plutarch 73.5 ; Nikos Kokkino, ( Routledge, 1992 ), p. 11 ; Pat Southern ( Tempus, 1998 ), p. two ; hadrian Goldsworthy ( Yale University Press, 2010 ), n.p. . According to Suetonius 11.3 ), the emperor Claudius, Antony ‘s grandson through parental ancestry, evaded the prohibition on commemorating Antony ‘s birthday by calculations showing that had he been born under the Julian calendar he would have shared his birthday with Drusus, the emperor ‘s father. Drusus was born in late March or early April, based on a mention that he was born “ within the third calendar month ” after his mother Livia married Augustus on 17 January ; G. Radke, “ Der Geburtstag des älteren Drusus, ” 4 ( 1978 ), pp. 211–13, proposed that a parturition date of 28 March for Drusus would resolve the chronological difficulties. Radke ‘s marriage proposal is summarized in English by the comment on Suetonius ‘ prison term by Donna W. Hurley, ( Cambridge University Press, 2001 ), p. 106, and by Marleen B. Flory, “ The symbolism of Laurel in Cameo Portraits of Livia, ” in ( University of Michigan Press, 1995 ), vol. 40, p. 56, note 48 .
2. ^ Cicero is the only ancient reference to mention a first marriage to an otherwise unknown Fadia ( Philippics, XIII, 10 )
3. ^Civil Wars 5.8.1) place the beginning of their famous romance at this meeting with Antony totally surrendering to Cleopatra’s beauty but modern historians reject this notion as retrospective historical propaganda on the part of ancient writers ( e.g. Appian,5.8.1 ) place the begin of their celebrated romance at this meet with Antony wholly surrendering to Cleopatra ‘s smasher but mod historians reject this notion as retrospective historic propaganda on the region of Augustus
4. ^ Lepidus, though still a extremity of the Triumvirate, was relegated to a junior position within the three-man dictatorship as Antony and Octavian established themselves .
5. ^ It is besides speculated that Antony ‘s legions, composed largely of caesarian veterans, did not wish to fight the adopted son of their erstwhile general .
6. ^ After celebrating his victory, Ventidius disappears from the diachronic record .

References [edit ]

Citations [edit ]

primary sources [edit ]

secondary coil sources [edit ]

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