Diplodocus

Genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaur ( dodo )
not to be confused with Diplocaulus
Diplodocus (, [ 3 ] [ 4 ], [ 4 ] or [ 3 ] ) is a genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaurs, whose fossils were first discovered in 1877 by S. W. Williston. The generic name, coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878, is a neo-latin term derived from greek διπλός ( diplos ) “ double ” and δοκός ( dokos ) “ air ”, [ 3 ] [ 5 ] in reference point to the double-beamed chevron bones located in the bottom of the tail, which were then considered unique.

Reading: Diplodocus

This genus of dinosaurs lived in what is now mid-western North America, at the end of the Jurassic time period. It is one of the more coarse dinosaur fossils found in the in-between to upper Morrison Formation, between about 154 and 152 million years ago, during the late Kimmeridgian age. [ 6 ] The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs, such as Apatosaurus, Barosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Brontosaurus, and Camarasaurus. [ 7 ] Its great size may have been a hindrance to the predators Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus : their remains have been found in the same class, which suggests that they coexisted with Diplodocus. Diplodocus is among the most easily identifiable dinosaurs, with its typical sauropod shape, long neck and stern, and four uncompromising legs. For many years, it was the longest dinosaur known .

description [edit ]

Diplodocus carnegii (orange) and D. hallorum (green) compared with a human. Sizes of ( orange ) and ( green ) compared with a human. Among the best-known sauropods, Diplodocus were very bombastic, long-necked, quadrupedal animals, with long, whip-like tails. Their forelimbs were slenderly shorter than their hind limbs, resulting in a largely horizontal model. The skeletal structure of these long-necked, long-tailed animals supported by four uncompromising legs have been compared with suspension bridges. [ 8 ] In fact, Diplodocus carnegii is presently one of the longest dinosaurs known from a complete skeleton, [ 8 ] with a total distance of 24–26 meters ( 79–85 foot ). [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Modern mass estimates for Diplodocus carnegii have tended to be in the 12–14.8-metric-ton ( 13.2–16.3-short-ton ) range. [ 9 ] [ 11 ] [ 10 ] [ 12 ] Diplodocus hallorum, known from fond remains, was even larger, and is estimated to have been the size of four elephants. [ 13 ] When first described in 1991, inventor David Gillette calculated it may have been up to 52 m ( 171 foot ) hanker, [ 14 ] making it the longest known dinosaur ( excluding those known from extremely poor remains, such as Amphicoelias or Maraapunisaurus ). Some weight estimates of this prison term ranged equally high as 113 metric function tons ( 125 short-change tons ). The calculate duration was late revised down to 33–33.5 thousand ( 108–110 foot ) and former on to 29–32 meter ( 95–105 foot ) [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 10 ] [ 9 ] based on findings that show that Gillette had in the first place misplaced vertebra 12–19 as vertebra 20–27. The closely complete Diplodocus carnegii skeletal system at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on which size estimates of D. hallorum are chiefly based, besides was found to have had its thirteenth stern vertebra come from another dinosaur, throwing off size estimates for D. hallorum flush further. While dinosaurs such as Supersaurus were probably longer, dodo remains of these animals are only fragmental. [ 18 ]
D. carnegii showing the double-beamed chevron bones to which the genus name refers, Caudal vertebra ofshowing the double-beamed chevron bones to which the genus name refers, Natural History Museum, London Diplodocus had an highly long chase, composed of about 80 caudal vertebra, [ 19 ] which are about doubly the total some of the earlier sauropods had in their tails ( such as Shunosaurus with 43 ), and far more than coetaneous macronarians had ( such as Camarasaurus with 53 ). Some guess exists as to whether it may have had a defensive [ 20 ] or noisemaking ( by cracking it like a ocotillo ) function. [ 21 ] The stern may have served as a counteract for the neck. The middle part of the tail had “ double glow ” ( curiously shaped chevron bones on the bottom, which gave Diplodocus its name ). They may have provided documentation for the vertebra, or possibly prevented the rake vessels from being crushed if the animal ‘s heavy stern pressed against the ground. These “ double shine ” are besides seen in some related dinosaurs. Chevron bones of this especial form were initially believed to be alone to Diplodocus ; since then they have been discovered in early members of the diplodocid family deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as in non-diplodocid sauropods, such as Mamenchisaurus. [ 22 ]
D. carnegii with horizontal neck, flexible whip tail, keratinous spines and nostrils low on the snout restoration ofwith horizontal neck, flexible whip tail, keratinous spines and nostrils low on the snout Like other sauropods, the hand ( presence “ feet ” ) of Diplodocus were highly modified, with the finger and pass bones arranged into a vertical column, horseshoe -shaped in traverse section. Diplodocus lacked claws on all but one digit of the front arm, and this claw was unusually big relative to early sauropods, flattened from side to side, and detached from the bones of the hand. The function of this unusually specialized claw is stranger. [ 23 ] No skull has always been found that can be confidently said to belong to Diplodocus, though skulls of other diplodocids close related to Diplodocus ( such as Galeamopus ) are well known. The skulls of diplodocids were very little compared with the size of these animals. Diplodocus had little, ‘peg’-like tooth that pointed forward and were only present in the anterior sections of the yack. [ 24 ] Its cranium was small. The neck was composed of at least 15 vertebrae and may have been held parallel to the crunch and unable to be elevated much past horizontal. [ 25 ]

skin [edit ]

The discovery of partial derivative diplodocid skin impressions in 1990 showed that some species had pin down, pointed keratinous spines, much like those on an common iguana and up to 18 centimeters ( 7.1 in ) farseeing, on the “ whiplash ” part of their tails, and possibly along the back and neck deoxyadenosine monophosphate well, as in hadrosaurids. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] The spines have been incorporated into many recent reconstructions of Diplodocus, notably Walking with Dinosaurs. [ 28 ] The original description of the spines noted that the specimens in the Howe Quarry near Shell, Wyoming were associated with bony remains of an undescribed diplodocid “ resembling Diplodocus and Barosaurus. ” [ 26 ] Specimens from this quarry have since been referred to Kaatedocus siberi and Barosaurus sp., preferably than Diplodocus. [ 6 ] [ 29 ]
Diplodocus sp. scale shapes. These scale shapes include (1) rectangular, (2) ovoid and dome, (3) arching scale rows, (4) globular. sp. scale shapes. These scale shapes include ( 1 ) rectangular, ( 2 ) ovoid and dome, ( 3 ) arching scale rows, ( 4 ) ball-shaped. Fossilized skin of Diplodocus sp., discovered at the Mother ‘s Day Quarry, exhibits respective unlike types of scale shapes including orthogonal, polygonal, pebble, ovoid, dome, and ball-shaped. These scales range in size and human body depending upon their location on the integument, the smallest of which reach about 1mm while the largest 10 millimeter. Some of these scales show orientations that may indicate where they belonged on the body. For exemplify, the ovoid scales are oriented close clustered together and look similar to scales in modern reptiles that are located dorsally. Another orientation on the dodo consists of arching rows of public square scales that interrupts nearby polygonal scale pattern. It is noted that these arching scale rows look similar to the scale orientations seen around crocodilian reptile limbs, suggesting that this area may have besides originated from around a limb on the Diplodocus. The skin fossil itself is small in size, reaching less than 70 centimeter in length. Due to the huge sum of scale diversity seen within such a minor area, angstrom well as the scales being smaller in comparison to other diplodocid scale fossils, and the bearing of humble and potentially “ juvenile ” material at the Mother ’ s Day Quarry, it is hypothesized that the skin originated from a modest or even “ juvenile ” Diplodocus. [ 30 ]

Discovery and species [edit ]

D. carnegii, 1901 Hatcher ‘s original restitution of the skeletal system of, 1901 several species of Diplodocus were described between 1878 and 1924. The first skeleton was found at Cañon City, Colorado, by Benjamin Mudge and Samuel Wendell Williston in 1877, and was named Diplodocus longus ( ‘long double-beam ‘ ) by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878. [ 31 ] Although not the type species, D. carnegii is the most wholly known and most celebrated species due to the bombastic count of casts of its skeleton in museums around the world. [ 22 ] Diplodocus remains have since been found in the Morrison Formation of the western U.S. states of Colorado, Utah, Montana, and Wyoming. Fossils of this animal are common, except for the skull, which has never been found with differently complete skeletons. D. hayi, known from a partial skeleton and skull discovered by William H. Utterback in 1902 near Sheridan, Wyoming, was described in 1924. [ 32 ] In 2015, it was renamed as the offprint genus Galeamopus, and respective other Diplodocus specimens were referred to that genus, leaving no definite Diplodocus skulls known. [ 6 ] The two Morrison Formation sauropod genus Diplodocus and Barosaurus had identical alike arm bones. In the past, many isolated limb bones were automatically attributed to Diplodocus, but may, in fact, have belonged to Barosaurus. [ 33 ] Fossil remains of Diplodocus have been recovered from stratigraphic zone 5 of the Morrison Formation. [ 34 ]

valid species [edit ]

D. carnegii specimens CM 84 and CM 94, with missing portions reconstructed after other diplodocids skeletal reconstruction ofspecimens CM 84 and CM 94, with missing portions reconstructed after other diplodocids

Nomina dubia ( doubtful species ) [edit ]

D. longus USNM 2672, a skull once thought to have belonged to the type specimen of

D. longus, the type species, is known from two complete and several fragmentary caudal vertebrae from the Morrison Formation (Felch Quarry) of Colorado. Though several more complete specimens have been attributed to D. longus,[42] detailed analysis has suggested that the original fossil lacks the necessary features to allow comparison with other specimens. For this reason, it has been considered a nomen dubium, which is not an ideal situation for the type species of a well-known genus like Diplodocus. A petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was being considered which proposed to make D. carnegii the new type species.[6][36] This proposal was rejected by the ICZN and D. longus has been maintained as the type species.[43]
D. lacustris (“of the lake”) is a nomen dubium, named by Marsh in 1884 based on specimen YPM 1922 found by Arthur Lakes, consisting of the snout and upper jaw of a smaller animal from Morrison, Colorado.[44] These remains are now believed to have been from an immature animal, rather than from a separate species.[45] In 2015, it was concluded that the specimen actually belonged to Camarasaurus.[6]

classification [edit ]

Diplodocus is both the type genus of, and gives its mention to, the Diplodocidae, the family to which it belongs. [ 44 ] Members of this family, while even massive, are of a markedly more slender construct than other sauropods, such as the titanosaur and brachiosaurs. All are characterised by long necks and tails and a horizontal carriage, with forelimbs shorter than hind limb. Diplodocids flourished in the Late Jurassic of North America and possibly Africa. [ 19 ] A subfamily, the Diplodocinae, was erected to include Diplodocus and its closest relatives, including Barosaurus. More distantly related is the coetaneous Apatosaurus, which is calm considered a diplodocid, although not a diplodocine, as it is a member of the baby subfamily Apatosaurinae. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] The Portuguese Dinheirosaurus and the African Tornieria have besides been identified as close relatives of Diplodocus by some authors. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] The Diplodocoidea comprise the diplodocids, angstrom well as dicraeosaurids, rebbachisaurids, Suuwassea, [ 46 ] [ 47 ] Amphicoelias [ 49 ] and possibly Haplocanthosaurus, [ 50 ] and/or the nemegtosaurids. [ 51 ] This clade is the sister group to Macronaria ( camarasaurids, brachiosaurids and titanosaurians ). [ 50 ] [ 51 ] Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson ( 2015 ) below : [ 6 ]

paleobiology [edit ]

D. hallorum in environment Restoration ofin environment due to a wealth of skeletal remains, Diplodocus is one of the best-studied dinosaurs. many aspects of its life style have been subjects of respective theories over the years. [ 22 ] Comparisons between the scleral rings of diplodocines and modern birds and reptiles suggest that they may have been cathemeral, active voice throughout the day at short intervals. [ 52 ] Marsh and then Hatcher [ 53 ] assumed that the animal was aquatic, because of the position of its adenoidal openings at the vertex of the cranium. similar aquatic behavior was normally depicted for early boastfully sauropods, such as Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus. A 1951 study by Kenneth A. Kermack indicates that sauropods credibly could not have breathed through their nostrils when the respite of the body was submerged, as the water press on the chest wall would be besides bang-up. [ 54 ] Since the 1970s, general consensus has the sauropods as firm mundane animals, browsing on trees, ferns, and bushes. [ 55 ] Scientists have debated as to how sauropods were able to breathe with their large torso sizes and long necks, which would have increased the measure of dead outer space. They probable had an avian respiratory system, which is more efficient than a mammalian and reptile system. Reconstructions of the neck and thorax of Diplodocus show bang-up pneumaticity, which could have played a role in respiration as it does in birds. [ 56 ]

position [edit ]

[57] An antique delineation by Oliver P. Hay ( 1910 ), with sprawled limbs Diplodocus carnegii in the reconstruction of Gustav Tornier, 1909. Drawing by Paul Flanderky ( 1872–1937 ) The word picture of Diplodocus position has changed well over the years. For exemplify, a classic 1910 reconstruction by Oliver P. Hay depicts two Diplodocus with dislocate lizard-like limbs on the banks of a river. Hay argued that Diplodocus had a sprawl, lizard-like gait with wide splayed leg, [ 58 ] and was supported by Gustav Tornier. This hypothesis was contested by William Jacob Holland, who demonstrated that a sprawl Diplodocus would have needed a impinge through which to pull its belly. [ 59 ] Finds of sauropod footprints in the 1930s finally put Hay ‘s theory to rest. [ 55 ]

Diet and feeding [edit ]

Diplodocus (CM 11161) Cast of a diplodocid skull that may belong to a species of ( CM 11161 ) Diplodocines have highly unusual teeth compared to other sauropods. The crowns are hanker and slender, and egg-shaped in cross-section, while the vertex forms a blunt, trilateral point. [ 24 ] The most outstanding wear facet is on the vertex, though unlike all other wear patterns observed within sauropods, diplodocine wear patterns are on the labial ( cheek ) side of both the upper and lower teeth. [ 24 ] This implies that the feeding mechanism of Diplodocus and other diplodocids was radically different from that of other sauropods. Unilateral branch strip is the most probably feed behavior of Diplodocus, [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] as it explains the strange wear patterns of the teeth ( coming from tooth–food contact ). In unilateral branch leach, one tooth row would have been used to strip leaf from the bow, while the other would act as a guide and stabilizer. With the elongated preorbital ( in front of the eyes ) region of the skull, longer portions of stems could be stripped in a individual action. [ 24 ] besides, the palinal ( backwards ) gesticulate of the lower jaw could have contributed two significant roles to feeding demeanor : ( 1 ) an increased gape, and ( 2 ) allowed fine adjustments of the relative positions of the tooth rows, creating a smooth stripping action. [ 24 ] Young et al. ( 2012 ) used biomechanical model to examine the performance of the diplodocine skull. It was concluded that the marriage proposal that its dentition was used for bark-stripping was not supported by the data, which showed that under that scenario, the skull and teeth would undergo extreme stresses. The hypotheses of branch-stripping and/or preciseness biting were both shown to be biomechanically plausible run behaviors. [ 66 ] Diplodocine teeth were besides continually replaced throughout their lives, normally in less than 35 days, as was discovered by Michael D’Emic et al. Within each tooth socket, ampere many as five refilling teeth were developing to replace the next one. Studies of the teeth besides reveal that it preferred different vegetation from the other sauropods of the Morrison, such as Camarasaurus. This may have better allowed the assorted species of sauropods to exist without competition. [ 67 ]
Diplodocus (green) and various sauropods in a tripodal posture; The white dots showing the approximate center of mass, as estimated in studies. ( greens ) and diverse sauropods in a tripodal position ; The whiten dots showing the approximate focus on of mass, as estimated in studies. The tractability of Diplodocus neck is debated but it should have been able to browse from low levels to about 4 m ( 13 foot ) when on all fours. [ 25 ] [ 60 ] however, studies have shown that the plaza of multitude of Diplodocus was very close to the hip socket ; [ 68 ] [ 69 ] this means that Diplodocus could rear up into a bipedal carriage with relatively short campaign. It besides had the advantage of using its large fag end as a ‘prop ‘ which would allow for a identical stable tripodal model. In a tripodal pose Diplodocus could potentially increase its feeding height up to about 11 m ( 36 foot ). [ 69 ] [ 70 ] The neck ‘s crop of movement would have besides allowed the pass to graze below the level of the body, leading some scientists to speculate on whether Diplodocus grazed on submerge water plants, from riverbanks. This concept of the run carriage is supported by the relative lengths of front and back limbs. furthermore, its peg-like dentition may have been used for eating soft urine plants. [ 60 ] Matthew Cobley et al. ( 2013 ) disputed this, finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited neck movements. They department of state that the feed ranges for sauropods like Diplodocus were smaller than previously believed and the animals may have had to move their solid bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation. As such, they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimal department of energy needs. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] The conclusions of Cobley et al. were disputed in 2013 and 2014 by Mike Taylor, who analysed the come and aligning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus. Taylor found that the neck of Diplodocus was very flexible, and that Cobley et al. was incorrect, in that tractability as implied by bones is less than in reality. [ 73 ] In 2010, Whitlock et al. described a juvenile skull at the time referred to Diplodocus ( CM 11255 ) that differed greatly from adult skulls of the lapp genus : its snout was not deaden, and the teeth were not confined to the presence of the snout. These differences suggest that adults and juveniles were feeding differently. such an ecological difference between adults and juveniles had not been previously observed in sauropodomorphs. [ 74 ]

reproduction and growth [edit ]

restitution of a specialize snouted juvenile ( based on specimen CMC VP14128 ) feeding aboard broad snouted adults While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feed adaptation, it was besides suggested [ 75 ] that the outsize neck of Diplodocus and its relatives may have been primarily a intimate display, with any other feed benefits coming second. A 2011 study refuted this estimate in detail. [ 76 ] While no evidence indicates Diplodocus nesting habits, other sauropods, such as the titanosaur Saltasaurus, have been associated with nesting sites. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] The titanosaur nest sites indicate that they may have laid their eggs communally over a big area in many shallow pits, each covered with vegetation. Diplodocus may have done the same. The documentary Walking with Dinosaurs portrayed a mother Diplodocus using an ovipositor to lay eggs, but it was arrant speculation on the share of the documentary generator. [ 28 ] For Diplodocus and other sauropods, the size of clutches and individual eggs were surprisingly humble for such big animals. This appears to have been an adaptation to depredation pressures, as large eggs would require greater incubation time and frankincense would be at greater hazard. [ 79 ] Based on a issue of bone histology studies, Diplodocus, along with early sauropods, grew at a very fast rate, reaching sexual adulthood at fair over a decade, and continued to grow throughout their lives. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ]

paleoecology [edit ]

D. longus restoration of two The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric date, ranges between 156.3 million years old ( Ma ) at its base, [ 83 ] and 146.8 million years old at the top, [ 84 ] which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic time period. This geological formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin, where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drain basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in boggy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. [ 85 ] This formation is similar in historic period to the Lourinha Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. [ 86 ]
The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. [ 87 ] Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods Ceratosaurus, Koparion, Stokesosaurus, Ornitholestes, Allosaurus and Torvosaurus, the sauropods Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Camarasaurus, and Diplodocus, and the ornithischians Camptosaurus, Dryosaurus, Othnielia, Gargoyleosaurus and Stegosaurus. [ 88 ] Diplodocus is normally found at the same sites as Apatosaurus, Allosaurus, Camarasaurus, and Stegosaurus. [ 89 ] Allosaurus accounted for 70 to 75 % of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food world wide web. [ 90 ] Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the like genus as those seen in portuguese rocks of the Lourinha Formation ( chiefly Allosaurus, Ceratosaurus, Torvosaurus, and Stegosaurus ), or have a close counterpart ( Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan, Camptosaurus and Draconyx ). [ 86 ] other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles like Dorsetochelys, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as Hoplosuchus, and respective species of pterosaur like Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are besides common. The plant of the time period has been revealed by fossils of fleeceable alga, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns ( drift forests ), to fern savannas with casual trees such as the Araucaria -like conifer Brachyphyllum. [ 91 ]

cultural significance [edit ]

D. carnegii cast in Berlin, Germany, unveiled in 1908 hurl in Berlin, Germany, unveiled in 1908 Diplodocus has been a celebrated and much-depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur. [ 92 ] much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and erstwhile condition as the longest dinosaur. The contribution of many mounted skeletal casts of “ Dippy “ by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the populace at the begin of the twentieth century [ 93 ] did much to familiarize it to people worldwide. Casts of Diplodocus skeletons are still displayed in many museums cosmopolitan, including D. carnegii in a numeral of institutions. [ 55 ] This project, along with its association with ‘big skill ‘, philanthropism, and capitalism, drew much public care in Europe. The german satirical weekly Kladderadatsch devoted a poem to the dinosaur :

Auch ein viel älterer Herr noch muß

Den Wanderburschen spielen

Er ist genannt Diplodocus

und zählt zu den Fossilen

Herr Carnegie verpackt ihn froh

In riesengroße Archen

Und schickt als Geschenk ihn so

An mehrere Monarchen[94]

But even a much older gent

Sees itself forced to wander

He goes by the name Diplodocus

And belongs among the fossils

Mr. Carnegie packs him joyfully

Into giant arks

And sends him as gift

To several monarchs

“ Le diplodocus ” became a generic term for sauropods in French, much as “ apatosaur ” is in English. [ 95 ] D. longus is displayed the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt ( a skeletal system made up of respective specimens, donated in 1907 by the American Museum of Natural History ), Germany. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] A mounted and more accomplished skeletal system of D. longus is at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, [ 98 ] while a mounted skeleton of D. hallorum ( once Seismosaurus ), which may be the same as D. longus, can be found at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. [ 99 ] Dance musician Diplo derived his name from the dinosaur. [ 100 ] A war car ( landship ) from WW1 named Boirault machine was designed in 1915, by and by deemed airy and therefore given a dub “ Diplodocus militaris “. [ 101 ]