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country in West Africa
This article is about the country. For early uses, see Niger ( disambiguation ) not to be confused with adjacent country Nigeria Coordinates :

Niger or the Niger [ 12 ] [ 13 ] ( or ; [ 14 ] [ 15 ] french : [ niʒɛʁ ] ), formally the Republic of the Niger, [ 12 ] [ 13 ] ( Hausa : Jamhuriyar Nijar, Zarma – songhai : Nigér Laabo, Arabic : جمهورية النيجر‎ ) is a landlocked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Niger is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the confederacy, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwestern. Niger covers a down area of about 1,270,000 km2 ( 490,000 sq mile ), making it the second-largest landlocked area in West Africa ( behind Chad ). Over 80 % of its estate area lies in the Sahara Desert. The area ‘s predominantly Muslim population of about 22 million [ 16 ] [ 17 ] live by and large in clusters in the army for the liberation of rwanda confederacy and west of the country. The capital and largest city is Niamey, located in Niger ‘s southwest corner. Niger is a develop state, which systematically ranks near the buttocks in the United Nations ‘ Human Development Index ( HDI ) ; it was ranked 187th of 188 countries for 2015 and 189th out of 189 countries in the 2018 and 2019 reports. [ 18 ] Many of the non-desert portions of the area are threatened by periodic drought and desertification. The economy is concentrated around subsistence agribusiness, with some export department of agriculture in the more fertile south, and export of natural materials, specially uranium ore. Niger faces dangerous challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, inefficient agribusiness, high fertility rates without birth control condition and resulting overpopulation, [ 19 ] the hapless educational tied and poverty of its people, miss of infrastructure, hapless healthcare, and environmental degradation. Nigerien company reflects a diverseness draw from the retentive independent histories of its respective heathen groups and regions and their relatively shortstop period life in a single state of matter. historically, what is immediately Niger has been on the fringes of respective large states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under five constitutions and three periods of military rule. After the military coup in 2010, Niger became a democratic, multi-party state. A majority of the population lives in rural areas and has small entree to advanced education .

etymology

The state ‘s name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of the nation ; the beginning of the river ‘s list is uncertain, though a popular theory is that it comes from the Tuareg n’eghirren, meaning ‘flowing water ‘. [ 20 ] The most common pronunciation is the french one of, though in Anglophone media is besides occasionally used .

history

prehistory

Ancient rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger Humans have inhabited the territory of modern Niger for millennium ; rock tools, some date as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous, Bilma and Djado in the northerly Agadez Region. [ 21 ] Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northerly Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC. [ 22 ] [ 21 ] It is thought that these early humans lived a hunter-gatherer life style. [ 21 ] In prehistoric times the climate of the Sahara defect was much wetter and more fat than it is today, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the ‘ green Sahara ‘, which provided favorable conditions for hunt and former department of agriculture and livestock herd. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] The Neolithic era began circa 10,000 BC ; this period saw a total of crucial changes, such as the initiation of pottery ( as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene ), the spread of cattle farming, and the bury of the dead in stone tumuli. [ 21 ] As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east. [ 25 ] Agriculture became far-flung, notably the planting of millet and sorghum, a well as pottery production. [ 21 ] Iron and copper items first appear in this era, with early discovery including those at Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet and the Termit Massif. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The Kiffian ( circa 8000–6000 BC ) and belated Tenerian ( circa 5000–2500 BC ) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where numerous skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Towards the end of this period, up till the first centuries AD, societies continued to grow and become more complex, with regional differentiation in agrarian and funerary practices. A celebrated culture of this late period is the Bura culture ( circa 200–1300 AD ), named for the Bura archaeological site. where a burying satiate with many iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered. [ 34 ] The Neolithic era besides saw the boom of Saharan rock ‘n’ roll artwork, most notably in the Aïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet and Dabous ; the artwork spans the period from 10,000BC to 100AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied animal of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed ‘Libyan warriors ‘. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ]

Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial niger

Our cognition of early Nigerien history is limited by the lack of written sources, though it is known that by at least the fifth hundred BC the territory of modern Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a well-adapted mean of transportation through what was now an huge defect. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] This mobility, which would continue in waves for several centuries, was accompanied with far migration to the south and intermixing between sub-saharan African and North African populations, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as the gradual spread of Islam. [ 40 ] It was besides aided by the arabian invasion of North Africa at the end of the seventh hundred, which resulted in population movements to the south. [ 25 ] several empires and kingdoms flourished in the Sahel during this era. Their history does not fit easily within the modern boundaries of Niger, which were created during the menstruation of european colonialism ; the surveil adopts a roughly chronological explanation of the main empires .

Mali Empire ( 1200s–1400s )

The Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita ( r. 1230–1255 ) in circa 1230 and existed astir to 1600. As detailed in the Epic of Sundiata, Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the Sosso Empire, which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] From its heartland around the modern Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded well under consecutive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule of Mansa Musa ( radius. 1312–1337 ). [ citation needed ] At this point parts of what are immediately Niger ‘s Tillabéri Region fell under malian rule. [ 41 ] A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the hajj in 1324–25 and encouraged the outspread of Islam in the empire, though it appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs alternatively of or alongside the new religion. [ 41 ] [ 43 ] The empire began declining in the fifteenth century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the switch of european trade wind routes to the coast, and rebellions in the conglomerate ‘s periphery by Mossi, Wolof, Tuareg and Songhai peoples. [ 43 ] however a hindquarters Mali kingdom continued to exist until late 1600s. [ citation needed ]

Songhai Empire ( 1000s–1591 )

Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over advanced boundaries The Songhai Empire was named for its chief ethnic group, the Songhai or Sonrai, and was centred on the bend of the Niger River in advanced Mali. Songhai began settling this area from the 7th to 9th centuries ; [ citation needed ] by the early eleventh hundred Gao ( capital of the erstwhile Kingdom of Gao ) had become the empire ‘s capital. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire prospered and managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its brawny neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375. [ citation needed ] Under king Sonni Ali ( r. 1464–1492 ) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of Askia Mohammad I ( r. 1493–1528 ) ; at this detail the empire had expanded well from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where much of advanced western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez, which was conquered in 1496. [ 21 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] however the empire was unable to withstand repeat attacks from the Saadi Dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591 ; the empire then collapsed into a issue of smaller kingdoms. [ 45 ]

Sultanate of Aïr ( 1400s–1906 )

The Grand Mosque of Agadez In c. 1449 in the north of what is immediately Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez. [ 21 ] once a little trade post inhabited by a mix of Hausa and Tuaregs, the sultanate grew full-bodied due to its strategic position on the Trans-Saharan craft routes. In 1515 Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a separate of that empire until its crash in 1591. [ 21 ] [ 40 ] The follow centuries present a reasonably confuse picture, though it seems that the sultanate entered a decline marked by internecine wars and kin conflicts. [ 40 ] When Europeans began exploring the region in the nineteenth century much of Agadez lay in ruins, and it was taken over, though with difficulty, by the french ( see below ). [ 21 ] [ 40 ]

Kanem–Bornu Empire ( 700s–1700s )

To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for much of this period. [ 45 ] It was founded by the Zaghawa around the eighth hundred and based in Njimi, northeast of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, particularly during the dominion of the Sayfawa Dynasty which began in c. 1075 under Mai ( king ) Hummay. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, largely thanks to the effort of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi ( r. 1210–1259 ), and grew rich from its operate of many Trans-Saharan deal routes ; much of eastern and south-eastern Niger, notably Bilma and Kaouar, was under Kanem ‘s control in this menstruation. [ 50 ] Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by arab traders from the eleventh century, gradually gaining more converts over the follow centuries. [ 48 ] Attacks by the Bulala people in the late fourteenth century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad, where it became known as the Bornu Empire, ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on the modern Niger-Nigeria border. [ 51 ] [ 48 ] [ 52 ] Bornu prospered during the rule of Mai Idris Alooma ( r. circa 1575–1610 ) and re-conquered a lot of the traditional lands of Kanem, hence the appellation ‘Kanem–Bornu ‘ for the empire. By the late seventeenth century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a long period of decline, gradually shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland, though it remained an authoritative player in the region. [ 45 ] [ 48 ] Circa 1730–40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town of Zinder. [ 40 ] The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the mid-to-late nineteenth hundred, who declared independence and initiated a phase of vigorous expansion. [ 21 ] The sultanate managed to resist the overture of the Sokoto Caliphate ( see below ), but was late captured by the french in 1899. [ 21 ]

The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms ( 1400s–1800s )

Overlooking the town of Zinder and the Sultan ‘s palace from the french garrison ( 1906 ). The arrival of the French spelled a sudden end for precolonial states like the Sultanate of Damagaram, which carried on only as ceremony “ chiefs ” appointed by the colonial government. Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay diverse Hausa Kingdoms, encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles the modern Niger-Nigeria border. [ 53 ] The origins of the Hausa are dark, though they are thought to be a assortment of autochthonal peoples and migrant peoples from the north and/or east, emerging as a clear-cut people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded. [ 53 ] [ 21 ] [ 54 ] They gradually adopted Islam from the fourteenth century, though often this existed aboard traditional religions, developing into unique syncretic forms ; some Hausa groups, such as the Azna, resisted Islam wholly ( the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold to this sidereal day ). [ 21 ] [ 45 ] The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but respective federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their constitution was hierarchical though besides slightly democratic : the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the state and could be removed by them. [ 44 ] The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to the Bayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo. [ 53 ] [ 45 ] Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or ( Abu Yazid according to certain Nigerien historians ) who came from Baghdad. The seven original Hausa states ( much referred to as the ‘Hausa bakwai ‘ ) were : Daura ( department of state of queen Daurama ), Kano, Rano, Zaria, Gobir, Katsina and Biram. [ 44 ] [ 21 ] [ 54 ] An annex of the caption states that Bawo had a far seven sons with a concubine, who went on to the found the alleged ‘Banza ( illegitimate ) Bakwai ‘ : Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa. [ 54 ] A smaller state of matter not fitting into this outline was Konni, centred on Birni-N’Konni. [ 40 ] The Fulani ( besides called Peul, Fulbe etc. ), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s. [ 45 ] [ 53 ] During the former eighteenth century many Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there ; exploiting besides the populace ‘s reject with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio ( from Gobir ) declared a jihad in 1804. [ 40 ] [ 21 ] [ 55 ] After conquering most of Hausaland ( though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained freelancer ) he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809. [ 53 ] Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of modern Niger. [ 45 ] Many of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a long period of minor wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states ( such as Katsina and Gobir ) maintaining independence, whereas elsewhere new ones were formed ( such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua ). The Caliphate managed to survive until, fatally weakened by the invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the british in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France. [ 56 ] other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom, a Zarma polity founded in 1750 which resisted the principle of Hausa and Sokoto states. [ 40 ]

french Niger ( 1900–58 )

In the nineteenth hundred Europeans began to take a greater sake in Africa ; several european explorers travelled in the sphere of modern Niger, such as Mungo Park ( in 1805–06 ), the Oudney – Denham – Clapperton dispatch ( 1822–25 ), Heinrich Barth ( 1850–55 ; with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg ), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs ( 1865–67 ), Gustav Nachtigal ( 1869–74 ) and Parfait-Louis Monteil ( 1890–92 ). [ 21 ] respective european countries already possess littoral colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the hundred they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the ‘ clamber for Africa ‘, culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River ( approximately equivalent to the areas of modern Mali and Niger ). [ 57 ] France then set about making a reality of their rule on the labor. In 1897 the french officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger ; he reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898 and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga—however he was subsequently killed as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. [ 40 ] In 1899–1900 France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo, the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and the Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu —with the calculate of linking France ‘s african possessions. [ 57 ] The three finally met at Kousséri ( in the army for the liberation of rwanda north of Cameroon ) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr ‘s forces at the Battle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was marred by numerous atrocities, and became ill-famed for pillaging, looting, raping and killing many local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger. [ 40 ] [ 21 ] On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the immunity of tabby Sarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N’Konni in what is regarded as one of the worst massacres in french colonial history. [ 40 ] The brutal methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a scandal and Paris was forced to intervene ; however when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the deputation near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland, Klobb ‘s early policeman, and Lt. Octave Meynier finally took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed. [ 21 ] The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony ( modern Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger ) in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey, then little more than a bombastic village. [ 21 ] The border with Britain ‘s colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a crude boundary line having already been agreed by the two powers via several treaties during the period 1898–1906. [ 57 ] The capital of the district was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully-fledged colony within french West Africa. [ 21 ] [ 40 ] The borders of Niger were drawn up in diverse stages and had been fixed at their current position by the late 1930s. respective territorial adjustments took place in this period : the areas west of the Niger river were only attached to Niger in 1926–27, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta ( modern Burkina Faso ) in 1932–47 a lot of the east of that territory was added to Niger ; [ 58 ] [ 40 ] and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931. [ 59 ] The french by and large adopted a kind of collateral rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of administration providing that they acknowledged french domination. [ 21 ] The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to french govern, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states ; over time the Zarma frankincense became one of the more train and occidentalize groups in Niger. [ 40 ] however, perceived threats to french rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region ( 1905–06 ), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma rebellion in the Niger valley ( December 1905–March 1906 ) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with violence, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements. [ 21 ] [ 40 ] [ 60 ] Though largely successful in subduing the sedentary populations of the south, the french faced well more difficulty with the Tuareg in the north ( centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez ), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906. [ 21 ] Tuareg underground continued however, culminating in the Kaocen disgust of 1916–17, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan ; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan, where he was belated killed. [ 40 ] A creature sultan was set up by the french and the refuse and marginalization of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts. [ 40 ] Though it remained something of a backwater, some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the insertion of groundnut cultivation. [ 21 ] Various measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920 and 1931 were besides introduced. [ 21 ] [ 40 ] During the second base World War, during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany, Charles de Gaulle issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the french colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralize french Union. [ 61 ] The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a circumscribed form of french citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralization of power and circumscribed participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that the Nigerien Progressive Party ( Parti Progressiste Nigérien, or PPN, primitively a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or Rassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA ) was formed under the leadership of early teacher Hamani Diori, a well as the leftist Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba ( MSA ) led by Djibo Bakary. Following the Overseas Reform Act ( Loi Cadre ) of 23 July 1956 and the administration of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous country within the french Community. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. The MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French position. [ 62 ] On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960 ; [ 63 ] Diori frankincense became the first president of the united states of the area .

independent Niger ( 1960–present )

Diori years ( 1960–74 )

For its inaugural 14 years as an independent country Niger was run by a single-party civilian government under the presidency of Hamani Diori. [ 64 ] The 1960s were largely passive, and saw a large expansion of the education system and some specify economic growth and industrialization. [ 40 ] Links with France remained deeply, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mine in Arlit and supporting France in the Algerian War. [ 40 ] Relations with other african states were largely positive, with the exception of Dahomey ( Benin ), owing to an ongoing edge challenge. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup d’etat in 1963 and an character assassination attempt in 1965 ; much of this bodily process was masterminded by Djibo Bakary ‘s MSA-Sawaba group, which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964. [ 40 ] [ 65 ] In the early 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, devastating droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d’état that overthrew the Diori government .

first military regimen ( 1974–1991 )

The coup d’etat had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a small military group under the diagnose of the Conseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987. [ 40 ] The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis. [ 66 ] Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regimen were released after the coup and the state was stabilised, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were several attempted coups ( in 1975, 1976 and 1984 ) which were thwarted, their instigators being badly punished. [ 40 ] Despite the limitation in freedom, the nation enjoyed improved economic development as Kountché sought to create a ‘development club ‘, funded largely by the uranium mines in Agadez Region. [ 40 ] Several parastatal companies were created, major infrastructure ( building and modern roads, schools, health centres ) constructed, and there was minimal corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish hard. [ 67 ] In the 1980s Kountché began conservatively loosening the fascinate of the military, with some easiness of department of state censoring and attempts made to ‘civilianise ‘ the government. [ 40 ] however the economic smash ended following the break down in uranium prices, and IMF -led austerity and denationalization measures provoked resistance by many Nigeriens. [ 40 ] In 1985 a little Tuareg rebellion in Tchintabaraden was suppressed. [ 40 ] Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumor, and was succeeded by his head of staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who was confirmed as head of the Supreme Military Council four days late. [ 40 ] Saibou significantly curtailed the most inhibitory aspects of the Kountché era ( such as the confidential police and media censoring ), and set about introducing a action of political reform under the overall direction of a single party ( the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD ). [ 40 ] A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989. [ 40 ] General Saibou became the beginning president of the united states of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989. [ 68 ] President Saibou ‘s efforts to control political reforms failed in the confront of barter marriage and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic arrangement. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed scholar borderland in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international imperativeness for further democratic reform. [ 40 ] The Saibou government acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. [ 40 ] meanwhile, trouble reappear in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden ( broadly seen as the begin of the first Tuareg Rebellion ), prompting a dangerous military crackdown which led to many deaths ( the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000 ). [ 40 ]
Ali Saibou, President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian principle

National Conference and Third Republic ( 1991–1996 )

The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 marked a turning point in the post-independence history of Niger and brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future commission of the nation. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a design for a transitional government ; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a newly constitution that eliminated the former single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992. [ 69 ] Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993. [ 40 ] [ 68 ] Ousmane ‘s presidency was characterised by political turbulence, with four government changes and early legislative elections in 1995, a well a severe economic slump which the coalescence government proved unable to efficaciously address. [ 40 ] The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the nigerien government to sign a armistice with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was however ineffective owing to inner disagreement within the Tuareg ranks. [ 40 ] Another rebellion, led by disgruntled Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the state. [ 40 ] In April 1995 a peace bargain with the independent Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the politics agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with french aid, aid others return to a productive civilian biography. [ 70 ]

second military regimen and third gear military government ( 1996–1999 )

The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene ; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup d’etat that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] Maïnassara headed a Conseil de Salut National ( National Salvation Council ) composed of military official which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a modern constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996. [ 40 ] presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996, however the elections were viewed nationally and internationally as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign. [ 40 ] meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an IMF and World Bank -approved denationalization program which enriched many of his supporters but were opposed by the deal unions. [ 40 ] Following deceitful local elections in 1999 the enemy ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regimen. [ 40 ] In unclear circumstance ( possibly attempting to flee the nation ), Maïnassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the enlist of a united states constitution with a French-style semi-presidential system. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the like year. [ 75 ] The elections were broadly found to be rid and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs. [ 40 ]

Fifth Republic ( 1999–2009 )

Tuareg rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008 After winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn in function on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about many administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, a well as helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin. [ 76 ] [ 77 ] In August 2002, serious unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore ordain within several days. On 24 July 2004, the first municipal elections in the history of Niger were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second gear condition, therefore becoming the first president of the united states of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups. [ 40 ] [ 78 ] The legislative and executive configuration remained quite similar to that of the foremost term of the president : Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the united states of the National Assembly ( parliament ) by his peers. By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime curate had deteriorated, leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly. [ 40 ] The political environment worsened in the following class as President Tandja Mamadou sought out to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms in Niger. Proponents of the unfold presidency, rallied behind the ‘Tazartche ‘ ( Hausa for ‘overstay ‘ ) drift, were countered by opponents ( ‘anti-Tazartche ‘ ) composed of opposition party militants and civil company activists. [ 40 ] The position in the north besides deteriorated significantly in this period, resulting in the outbreak of a second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice ( MNJ ). Despite a phone number of high-profile kidnappings the rebellion had largely fizzled out inconclusively by 2009. [ 40 ] however the poor security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb ( AQIM ) to gain a foothold in the state. [ 40 ]

Fourth military government ( 2009–2010 )

In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, adenine well as being against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a fresh united states constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] The confrontation boycotted the referendum and the new constitution was adopted with 92.5 % of voters and a 68 % turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the fresh united states constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system, american samoa well as the suspension of the 1999 Constitution and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated severe political and social agitation throughout the country. [ 40 ] In a coup d’etat d’état in February 2010, a military military junta led by captain Salou Djibo was established in answer to Tandja ‘s try extension of his political term by modifying the united states constitution. [ 81 ] The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, led by General Salou Djibo, carried out a annual transition design, drafted a new united states constitution and held elections in 2011 that were judged internationally as spare and average .

Seventh Republic ( 2010–present )

Following the adoption of a raw constitution in 2010 and presidential elections a year late, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the united states of the Seventh Republic ; he was then re-elected in 2016. [ 82 ] [ 40 ] The constitution besides restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year early. An undertake coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested. [ 83 ] Issoufou ‘s time in office has been marked by numerous threats to the country ‘s security, stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict, a resurrect in attacks by AQIM, the consumption of Niger as a transit area for migrants ( much organised by criminal gangs ), and the spillover of Nigeria ‘s Boko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger. [ 84 ] french and american english forces are presently assisting Niger in countering these threats. [ 85 ] On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to Niger ‘s first ever peaceful transition of might. [ 86 ] however, no campaigner won an absolute majority in the vote : Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33 %. As per the united states constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75 % of the vote and opposition campaigner ( and former president of the united states ) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25 %, according to the electoral commission. [ 87 ] On 31 March 2021, Niger ‘s security forces thwarted an attempted coup by a military unit in the capital, Niamey. Heavy gunfire was heard in the early hours near the country ‘s presidential palace. The attack took place fair two days before newly elected president, Mohamed Bazoum, was due to be sworn into position. The Presidential Guard arrested several people during the incident. [ 88 ] On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger, meaning the state ’ s first democratic transition of baron since independence in 1960. [ 89 ]

Geography, climate, and ecology

A map of Niger Satellite image of Niger Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the union and Chad to the east. Niger lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N, and longitudes 0° and 16°E. Niger ‘s area is 1,267,000 square kilometres ( 489,191 sq myocardial infarction ) of which 300 squarely kilometres ( 116 sq security service ) is body of water. This makes it slenderly less than doubly the size of France, and the world ‘s twenty-second largest state. [ 90 ] Niger borders seven countries and has a sum perimeter of 5,697 kilometres ( 3,540 secret intelligence service ). The longest margin is with Nigeria to the south ( 1,497 kilometer or 930 secret intelligence service ). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 kilometer ( 730 nautical mile ), Algeria to the north-northwest ( 956 kilometer or 594 mi ), and Mali at 821 kilometer ( 510 nautical mile ). Niger besides has small borders in its far southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 kilometer ( 390 michigan ) and Benin at 266 kilometer ( 165 mile ) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 kilometer ( 220 mile ). The lowest point is the Niger River, with an aggrandizement of 200 metres ( 656 foot ). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2,022 molarity ( 6,634 foot ) .

climate

Niger map of Köppen climate categorization Niger ‘s climate is chiefly very hot and dry, with much abandon sphere, which causes patronize fires in some regions of the country. [ 91 ] In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly abandon plains and sand dunes, with two-dimensional to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north .

environment

The district of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions : Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. [ 92 ] The north of Niger is covered by large deserts and trailer truck deserts. The typical mammal animal consists of addax antelopes, scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. One of the largest reserves of the earth, the Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve, was founded in the northern parts of the Niger to protect these rare species. The southerly parts of Niger are naturally dominated savannah. The W National Park, situated in the bound area to Burkina Faso and Benin, belongs to one of the most significant areas for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP ( W– Arli – Pendjari ) Complex. It has the most authoritative population of the rare West african lion and one of the end populations of the Northwest African cheetah. early wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes, roan antelopes, kob antelopes and warthogs. The west african giraffe is presently not found in the W National Park, but further north in Niger, where it has its last relict population. environmental issues in Niger include destructive farm practices as a result of population imperativeness. Illegal hunt, bush fires in some areas and human impingement upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation are environmental issues. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighbor countries of Mali and Guinea and besides within Niger itself are besides cited as a argue for a decrease of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A miss of adequate staff to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another agent cited for loss of wildlife. [ 93 ] Farmer-managed natural regeneration is practiced since 1983 to increase food and timber production, and resilience to climate extremes. [ 94 ]

government and politics

Niger ‘s new fundamental law was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution ( Fifth Republic ) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal right to vote for a five-year term, and a prime curate named by the president of the united states share administrator power. As a reflection of Niger ‘s increasing population, the unicameral National Assembly was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a five-year condition under a majority system of representation. political parties must attain at least 5 percentage of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. The fundamental law besides provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place on 24 July 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes ( local anesthetic councils ) ; in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralize entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The state is presently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts ( departments ). The headman administrator ( governor ) in each department is appointed by the government and functions chiefly as the local agent of the central authorities. On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved fantan after the country ‘s constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in position. According to the constitution, a modern parliament was elected within three months. [ 95 ] This began a political contend between Tandja, trying to extend his term-limited assurance beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic, and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009. See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. The military took over the nation and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption. The military kept their promise to return the area to democratic civilian rule. A constituent referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no acquit winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ]

alien relations

Niger ‘s flag brandish at the embassy in Paris Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic worldly concern ampere well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specify agencies and in 1980–81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with erstwhile colonial power France and has conclusion relations with its west african neighbors. It is a rent extremity of the African Union and the west african Monetary Union and besides belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa ( OHADA ). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with conterminous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority. The border challenge with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning bury alia Lété Island in the Niger River, was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger ‘s advantage .

military

The Niger Armed Forces ( Forces armées nigériennes ) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as sovereign commanding officer. They consist of the Niger Army ( Armée de Terre ), the Niger Air Force ( Armée de l’Air ) and the aide paramilitary forces, such as the National Gendarmerie ( Gendarmerie nationale ) and the National Guard ( Garde Nationale ). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are by and large policing duties. The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700 gendarmes, 3200 national guards, 300 air travel push personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved respective military coups over the years with the most holocene in 2010. Niger ‘s armed forces have a farseeing history of military cooperation with France and the United States. As of 2013, Niamey is home to a U.S. monotone base .

judicial system

The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the universe of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on the Code Napoleon “ Inquisitorial system “, established in Niger during french colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and built-in questions. The gamey Court of Justice ( HCJ ) deals with cases involving elder government officials. The justice system besides includes civil criminal courts, accustomed courts, traditional mediation, and a military woo. [ 99 ] The military court provides the lapp rights as civil criminal courts ; however, accustomed courts do not. The military woo can not try civilians. [ 100 ]

law enforcement

Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the National Gendarmerie and the Ministry of the Interior through the National Police and the National Guard. The National Police is chiefly responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this province falls on the National Gendarmerie and the National Guard .

politics finance

Government finance is derived tax income exports ( Mining, anoint and agrarian exports ) equally well as assorted forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, extraneous help has contributed to big percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger ‘s government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ( $ 2.53 billion ) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11 % decrease in the budget from the previous class. [ 101 ] The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to : public debt ( 76,703,692,000 CFA ), personnel expenditures ( 210,979,633,960 CFA ), operating expenditures ( 128,988,777,711 CFA ) ; subsidies and transfers : 308,379,641,366 CFA ) and Investment ( 1,142,513,658,712 CFA ). [ 102 ]

Foreign help

The importance of external support for Niger ‘s exploitation is demonstrated by the fact that about 45 % of the government ‘s FY 2002 budget, including 80 % of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. [ 103 ] The most significant donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and respective United Nations agencies ( UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, World Food Program, and United Nations Population Fund ). other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing closely $ 10 million each class to Niger ‘s development. The U.S. besides is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS .

administrative divisions

administrative divisions of Niger Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments. The 36 Departments are presently broken down into Communes of varying types. As of 2006 there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines ( urban Communes : as subdivisions of major cities ), communes rurales ( Rural Communes ), in sparsely populate areas and postes administratifs ( administrative Posts ) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones. rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralization project, first begun in 1998. previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national politics. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level. The pre-2002 departments ( renamed as regions ) and capital district are :

Largest cities and towns

Largest cities or towns in Niger
[104] According to the 2012 Census

Rank

Name
Region

Pop.

Niamey

Maradi

1
Niamey
Niamey
978,029

Zinder

Tahoua

2
Maradi
Maradi
267,249

3
Zinder
Zinder
235,605

4
Tahoua
Tahoua
117,826

5
Agadez
Agadez
110,497

6
Arlit
Agadez
78,651

7
Birni-N’Konni
Tahoua
63,169

8
Dosso
Dosso
58,671

9
Gaya
Dosso
45,465

10
Tessaoua
Maradi
43,409

economy

A proportional representation of Niger exports, 2019 The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world ‘s largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9 % population increase pace, and the drop in world necessitate for uranium have undercut the economy. Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West african States ( BCEAO ), with seven early members of the west african Monetary Union. Niger is besides a extremity of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa ( OHADA ). [ 105 ]
niamey at Night In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhance debt stand-in under the International Monetary Fund platform for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries ( HIPC ) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility ( PRGF ). Debt respite provided under the enhance HIPC enterprise significantly reduces Niger ‘s annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and early programs geared at poverty reduction .
Dolé market In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100 % multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US $ 86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining aid under HIPC. Nearly half of the politics ‘s budget is derived from extraneous donor resources. future growth may be sustained by exploitation of anoint, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. uranium prices have recovered reasonably in the last few years. A drought and locust tree infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for angstrom many as 2.5 million Nigeriens .

club

Demographics

As of 2018, the population of Niger was 22,442,831 [ 16 ] [ 17 ]. Expanding from a population of 3.4 million in 1960, Niger ‘s population has quickly increased with a current emergence pace of 3.3 % ( 7.1 children per mother ). [ 106 ] [ 107 ] This growth pace is one of the highest in the universe and is a generator of concern for the government and external agencies. [ 108 ] The population is predominantly young, with 49.2 % under 15 years honest-to-god and 2.7 % over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21 % living in urban areas. [ 106 ] A 2005 study [ which? ] stated that over 800,000 people ( about 8 % of the population ) in Niger are enslaved. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ]

urban settlements

ethnic groups

Ethnic Groups in Niger (2001 Census)[113]

Ethnic Groups

percent

Hausa

55.4%

Zarma & Songhai

21%

Tuareg

9.3%

Fula

8.5%

Kanuri

4.7%

Toubou

0.4%

Arab

0.4%

Gurma

0.4%

Other

0.1%

Niger has a wide assortment of cultural groups as in most west african countries. The heathen makeup of Niger in 2001 is as follows : Hausa ( 55.4 % ), Zarma & Songhay ( 21 % ), Tuareg ( 9.3 % ), Fula ( french : Peuls ; Fula : Fulɓe ) ( 8.5 % ), Kanuri Manga ( 4.7 % ), Tubu ( 0.4 % ), Arab ( 0.4 % ), Gourmantche ( 0.4 % ), other ( 0.1 % ). [ 106 ] The Zarma and Songhay dominate the Dosso, Tillabéri, and Niamey régions, the Hausa dominate the Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua regions, Kanuri Manga dominate the Diffa area, and Touaregs dominate the Agadez area in Northern Niger. [ 113 ]

Languages

french, inherited from the colonial period, is the official terminology. It is spoken chiefly as a second base speech by people who have received a ball western education and serves as the administrative speech. Niger has been a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Niger has ten recognized national languages, namely Arabic, Buduma, Fulfulde, Gourmanchéma, Hausa, Kanuri, Zarma & Songhay, Tamasheq, Tassawaq, Tebu. [ 1 ] Each is spoken as a inaugural language primarily by the cultural group with which it is associated. [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Hausa and Zarma-Songhai, the two most speak languages, are wide spoken throughout the country as foremost or second languages .

religion

Religion in Niger

religion

percent[3]

Islam

99.3%

Christianity

0.3%

Animism

0.2%

Irreligious

0.1%

Niger is a secular area and separation of state and religion is guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution, which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the worldly nature of the republic of Niger. religious exemption is protected by Article 30 of the same united states constitution. Islam, far-flung in the area since the tenth century, has greatly shaped the polish and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most prevailing religion, practiced by 99.3 % of the population according to the 2012 census. [ 3 ] The other two main religions of Niger are Christianity, practiced by 0.3 % of the population, and Animism ( traditional autochthonal religious beliefs ), practiced by 0.2 % of the population. [ 3 ] Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the french colonial years. other urban christian expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are besides confront. religious persecution is rare in Niger which is ranked last ( # 50 ) on the World Watch List for severity of persecution that Christians face for actively pursuing their religion. The numbers of Animist practitioners are a item of competition. a recently as the late nineteenth century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been lone partial derivative. There are distillery areas where animist based festivals and traditions ( such as the Bori religion ) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities ( in some Hausa areas a well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists ), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri ( or Azna, the Hausa password for “ pagan ” ) residential district in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri talk Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. There are besides some bantam Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest. [ 116 ]

islam

The majority of Muslims in Niger are Sunni, 7 % are Shi’a, 5 % are Ahmadiyya and 20 % non-denominational. [ 117 ] [ 118 ] Islam was spread into what is immediately Niger beginning in the fifteenth century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan deal traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their capture of the army for the liberation of rwanda eastern oases from the Kanem–Bornu Empire in the seventeenth centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices .
Both Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th- and 19th-century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate ( in nowadays ‘s Nigeria ). modern Muslim drill in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufi brotherhoods, although there are belittled minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and the Sanusiya in the army for the liberation of rwanda northeast. [ 116 ] A small center of followers of Salafi apparent motion within Sunni Islam have appeared in the final thirty years, in the capital and in Maradi. [ 119 ] These modest groups, linked to alike groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a worldly country, protected by law. [ 123 ] Interfaith relations are deemed very adept, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the state are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom. [ 124 ] Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country .

education

A primary coil classroom in Niger The literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world ; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7 % ( 42.9 % male and 15.1 % female ). [ 125 ] Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years. [ 126 ] The primary coil school registration and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls. [ 126 ] In 1997, the arrant basal registration rate was 29.3 percentage, and in 1996, the net basal registration rate was 24.5 percentage. [ 126 ] About 60 percentage of children who finish primary coil schools are son, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years. [ 126 ] Children are much forced to work preferably than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods. [ 126 ] Nomadic children in the north of the country frequently do not have access to schools. [ 126 ]

Health

The child mortality rate in Niger ( deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4 ) is gamey ( 248 per 1,000 ) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the state ‘s children. According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world ‘s highest baby deathrate rate. [ 127 ]
Maradi Reference Hospital Niger besides has the highest richness rate in the earth ( 6.49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates ) ; [ 128 ] this has resulted in about half ( 49.7 % ) of the Nigerien population being under old age 15 in 2020. [ 129 ] Niger has the 11th highest enate mortality rate in the universe at 820 deaths/100,000 live births. [ 130 ] There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006. [ 131 ] clean drink water is scarce by ball-shaped standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. In the UN Human Development Index, Niger is at the bottom. Drought and desertification affect many countries. Of course, clean water is authoritative for a safe club and economy. 92 % of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean body of water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius. [ 132 ] [ 133 ] [ 134 ] merely 40 % of the 30,000 inhabitants in Téra, a city northwest of the state ‘s capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso boundary line, have access to a working populace water infrastructure. [ 132 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger ( SPEN ), Niger ‘s water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide beverage water to Téra and the surrounding areas. The water add ran out about a class later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close. [ 132 ] [ 137 ] With the help of a contribution fund from the dutch government, the European Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger ‘s water issues. The World Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 flimsy regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. The EU deposit has a history of investing in regions like these. [ 138 ] The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra ‘s water system shortages. The first choice is to repair the water cooler on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport urine from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and the Niger River will besides have access to sewage.The european Investment Bank will besides look at renewable energy as a way to save costs. [ 138 ]

culture

Horsemen at the traditional Ramadan festival at the Sultan ‘s Palace in the Hausa city of Zinder A traditional family in Zinder nigerian culture is marked by variation, testify of the cultural crossroads which french colonialism formed into a unite state from the beginning of the twentieth century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial earned run average : the Zarma and Songhai dominated the Niger River valley in the southwest ; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made largely of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern surround with Nigeria ; the Lake Chad washbasin and Kaouar in the far east, populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been partially of the Kanem–Bornu Empire ; and the Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains and Saharan defect in the huge union. Each of these communities, along with smaller heathen groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new express of Niger. While consecutive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national polish, this has been slow imprint, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in region because Nigerien cultural groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but character of larger cultural communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism. Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. At the lapp fourth dimension the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N’Konni and Maine-Soroa, have much looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was about 30 %, [ 139 ] including 36 % of males and only 25 % of females. extra education occurs through madrasa .

Festivals and cultural events

Guérewol festival

Guérewol dance, 1997. Participants in the Guérewol perform thedance, 1997. The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in Abalak in Tahoua region or In’Gall in Agadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe ( Fula ) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional confront painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines arsenic outstanding as the National Geographic .

Cure Salée festival

“ La Cure salée ” ( english : Salt Cure ) is a annually festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in In’Gall in Agadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the showery season. For three days, the festival features a parade of Tuareg camel riders followed with camel and cavalry races, songs, dances, and storytelling .

Media

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled express media. [ 140 ] now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines ; some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government. [ 141 ] [ 142 ] Radio is the most authoritative medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural hapless, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium. [ 93 ] In addition to the home and regional radio services of the submit broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns. [ 143 ] There is besides a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité ( CPRP ), a civil society constitution. The independent-sector radio networks are jointly estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73 % of the population ( 2005 ). aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC ‘s Hausa serve is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, peculiarly in the south, close to the molding with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale besides rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM besides runs a national freelancer television station of the lapp identify. [ 143 ] Despite proportional freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities. [ 144 ] The state of matter ORTN network depends financially on the politics, partially through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partially through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International homo rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and patrol to punish criticism of the submit. [ 145 ] [ 146 ]

See besides

References

Sources

Trade

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