Turkey ( turkish : Türkiye [ ˈtyɾcije ] ), formally the Republic of Turkey, [ a ] is a state located chiefly on Anatolia in western Asia, with a little helping on the Balkans in Southeast Europe. It shares borders with Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest ; the Black Sea to the north ; Georgia to the northeast ; Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east ; Iraq to the southeast ; Syria and the Mediterranean Sea to the south ; and the Aegean Sea to the west. Turks form the huge majority of the nation ‘s population and Kurds are the largest minority. [ 4 ] Ankara is Turkey ‘s das kapital, while Istanbul, the Imperial capital, is its largest city and fiscal center. One of the world ‘s earliest permanently settled regions, contemporary Turkey was home to crucial Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe, and was inhabited by ancient civilisations such as the Hattians, early anatolian peoples and Mycenaean Greeks. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Following the conquests of Alexander the Great which started the Hellenistic menstruation, most of the ancient regions in mod Turkey were culturally Hellenised, which continued during the Byzantine era. [ 12 ] [ 15 ] The Seljuk Turks began migrating in the eleventh century, and the Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into humble turkish principalities. [ 16 ] Beginning in the late thirteenth hundred, the Ottomans united the principalities and conquered the Balkans, and the Turkification of Anatolia increased during the Ottoman period. After Mehmed II conquered Constantinople ( Istanbul ) in 1453, Ottoman expansion continued under Selim I. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became a ball-shaped ability. [ 11 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] From the late eighteenth century onwards, the empire ‘s ability declined with a gradual passing of territories. [ 19 ] Mahmud II started a period of modernization in the early nineteenth hundred. [ 20 ] The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 restricted the authority of the Sultan and restored the Ottoman Parliament after a 30-year suspension, ushering the empire into a multi-party time period. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] The 1913 coup d’etat d’état put the state under the control of the Three Pashas, who facilitated the Empire ‘s submission into World War I as part of the Central Powers in 1914. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its armenian, assyrian neo-aramaic and Pontic greek subjects. [ b-complex vitamin ] [ 25 ] After its get the better of in the war, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned. [ 26 ]
Reading: Turkey – Wikipedia
The Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allied Powers resulted in the abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, the sign of the Treaty of Lausanne ( which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres ) on 24 July 1923 and the announcement of the Republic on 29 October 1923. With the reforms initiated by the country ‘s first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey became a layman, unitary and parliamentary republic. Turkey played a big role in the Korean War and joined NATO in 1952. The area endured several military coups in the latter half of the twentieth century. The economy was liberalised in the 1980s, leading to stronger economic emergence and political stability. The parliamentary democracy was replaced with a presidential system by referendum in 2017. Since then, the new Turkish governmental system under president of the united states Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and his party, the AKP, has often been described as Islamist and authoritarian. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The latter ‘s rule over the state has besides led to numerous currency crises, [ 29 ] increasing inflation and economic decay, [ 30 ] deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as a rise in poverty. [ 31 ] Turkey is a regional power and a newly industrialized state, [ 32 ] with a geopolitically strategic placement. [ 33 ] Its economy, which is classified among the emerging and growth-leading economies, is the twentieth-largest in the world by nominative GDP, and the eleventh-largest by PPP. It is a charter extremity of the United Nations, an early extremity of NATO, the IMF, and the World Bank, and a establish extremity of the OECD, OSCE, BSEC, OIC, and G20. After becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995, and started entree negotiations with the European Union in 2005 .
etymology
The English identify of Turkey ( from Medieval Latin Turchia / Turquia [ 34 ] ) means ‘land of the Turks ‘. Middle english custom of Turkye is evidenced in an early work by Chaucer called The Book of the Duchess ( c. 1369 ). The give voice land of Torke is used in the 15th-century Digby Mysteries. Later usages can be found in the Dunbar poem, the sixteenth hundred Manipulus Vocabulorum ( Turkie ) and Francis Bacon ‘s Sylva Sylvarum ( Turky ). The mod spell Turkey dates back to at least 1719. [ 35 ] In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were much used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and cozy situations. [ 36 ]
history
prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
The anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the global. respective ancient anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic until the Hellenistic period. [ 12 ] Many of these peoples spoke the anatolian languages, a branch of the larger indo-european language syndicate : [ 38 ] and, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the aryan languages radiated. [ 39 ] The european part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has besides been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic earned run average by about 6000 BC. [ 13 ] Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to circa 10,000 BC, [ 37 ] while Çatalhöyük is a identical large Neolithic and Chalcolithic colony in southerly Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic locate found to date and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. [ 40 ] The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age. [ 41 ]
The Sphinx Gate of Hattusa, the capital of the Hittites The earliest commemorate inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited cardinal and easterly Anatolia, respectively, american samoa early as c. 2300 BC. indo-european Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000–1700 BC. The inaugural major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the thirteenth century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeast Turkey vitamin a early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC, [ 42 ] although they have remained a minority in the region, namely in Hakkari, Şırnak and Mardin. [ 43 ] Urartu reappear in assyrian akkadian inscriptions in the ninth hundred BC as a potent northern rival of Assyria. [ 44 ] Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an indo-european people, achieved dominance in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the seventh hundred BC. [ 45 ] Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the lapp fortune and dissolved in 590 BC, [ 46 ] when it was conquered by the Medes. The most mighty of Phrygia ‘s successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia .
ancientness
Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavy settled by Aeolian and ionian Greeks. Numerous authoritative cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna ( now İzmir ) and Byzantium ( now Istanbul ), the latter founded by greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. [ 49 ] The inaugural country that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the department of state of the armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of easterly Turkey begin in the sixth hundred BC. In Northwest Turkey, the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I. [ 50 ] All of contemporary Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the sixth hundred BC. [ 51 ] The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against irani rule in 499 BC. Artemisia I of Caria was a fagot of the ancient greek city state of Halicarnassus and she fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia against the autonomous Greek city states during the second irani invasion of Greece. She personally commanded her contribution of five ships at the naval battle of Artemisium in 480 BC. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ] The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC, [ 55 ] which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the sphere. [ 12 ] Following Alexander ‘s death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a issue of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became contribution of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st hundred BC. [ 56 ] The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander ‘s conquest accelerated under Roman principle, and by the early centuries of the Christian Era, the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient greek linguistic process and culture. [ 15 ] [ 57 ] From the first century BC up to the third century CE, bombastic parts of contemporary Turkey were contested between the Romans and neighbor Parthians through the frequent Roman-Parthian Wars .
early Christian and Byzantine time period
According to the Acts of Apostles, [ 59 ] Antioch ( immediately Antakya ), a city in southerly Turkey, is where followers of Jesus were foremost called “ Christians “ and became very promptly an important focus on of Christianity. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Paul the Apostle traveled to Ephesus and stayed there for about three years, credibly working there as a tentmaker, [ 62 ] as he had done when he stayed in Corinth. He is claimed to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he obviously organized missionary activeness in other regions. Paul left Ephesus after an assail from a local anesthetic silversmith resulted in a pro- Artemis orgy involving most of the city. In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the fresh capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This conglomerate, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of contemporary Turkey until the Late Middle Ages ; [ 64 ] although the easterly regions remained securely in Sasanian hands until the first half of the seventh century CE. The patronize Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, a good continuation of the centuries-long Roman-Persian Wars, took place in respective parts of contemporary Turkey between the 4th and 7th centuries CE. several cosmopolitan councils of the early church service were held in cities located in contemporary Turkey including the First Council of Nicaea ( Iznik ) in 325, the First Council of Constantinople ( Istanbul ) in 381, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon ( Kadıköy ) in 451. [ 65 ]
Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
The House of Seljuk originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim universe, in the Yabgu Khaganate of the Oğuz conspiracy, to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in the ninth hundred. [ 66 ] In the tenth century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral fatherland into Persia, which became the administrative congress of racial equality of the Great Seljuk Empire, after its foundation by Tughril. [ 67 ]
In the latter half of the eleventh hundred, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting the Turkification march in the area ; the turkish linguistic process and Islam were introduced to Armenia and Anatolia, gradually spreading throughout the region. The slowly passage from a predominantly christian and greek -speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was afoot. The Mevlevi Order of dervishes, which was established in Konya during the thirteenth century by Sufi poet Celaleddin Rumi, played a significant function in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia who had previously been Hellenized. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Thus, alongside the Turkification of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia, [ 71 ] which their eventual successors, the Ottomans, would take over. [ 72 ] [ 73 ] In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire ‘s world power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake island, one of the turkish principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the adjacent 200 years into the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, in 1453 : their air force officer thereafter being known as Mehmed the Conqueror .
[74] and 1856 to 1922,[75] respectively.Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaces were the primary residences of the Ottoman Sultans in Istanbul between 1465 to 1856and 1856 to 1922,respectively. In 1514, Sultan Selim I ( 1512–1520 ) successfully expanded the empire ‘s southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea. Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant ocean baron in the amerind Ocean, with a total of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The portuguese presence in the indian Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe. Despite the increasingly big european presence, the Ottoman Empire ‘s trade with the east continued to flourish until the second half of the eighteenth hundred. [ 76 ] The Ottoman Empire ‘s power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the predominate of Suleiman the Magnificent, who personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, department of education, tax income and criminal law. The empire was much at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its brace overture towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southerly share of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. [ 77 ]
The Ottoman Navy contended with respective Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 ( composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy ), for the operate of the Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were frequently at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries. [ 78 ] The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until the first half of the nineteenth century. even further east, there was an extension of the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict, in that the Ottomans besides had to send soldiers to their farthest and easternmost vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate [ 79 ] [ 80 ] in Southeast Asia, to defend it from european colonizers a well as the Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin America and had Christianized the once Muslim-dominated Philippines. [ 81 ] From the 16th to the early twentieth centuries, the Ottoman Empire besides fought twelve wars with the russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and easterly Europe ; but starting from the Russo-Turkish War ( 1768–1774 ), they became more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its strategic territories on the northerly Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians. From the second gear one-half of the eighteenth century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II just before his death in 1839, aimed to modernise the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late Tanzimat era led the Ottoman constitutional apparent motion of 1876, which introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolving of the empire. [ 82 ] As the conglomerate gradually shrank in size, military exponent and wealth ; specially after the Ottoman economic crisis and nonpayment in 1875 [ 83 ] which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War ( 1877–1878 ) ; many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire ‘s heartland in Anatolia, [ 84 ] [ 85 ] along with the Circassians fleeing the russian conquest of the Caucasus. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a ascend in nationalist sentiment among its versatile subject peoples, leading to increased heathen tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians. [ 86 ]
The loss of Rumelia ( Ottoman territories in Europe ) with the First Balkan War ( 1912–1913 ) was followed by the arrival of millions of Muslim refugees ( muhacir ) to Istanbul and Anatolia. [ 87 ] Historically, the Rumelia Eyalet and Anatolia Eyalet had formed the administrative core of the Ottoman Empire, with their governors titled Beylerbeyi participating in the Sultan ‘s Divan, so the loss of all Balkan provinces beyond the Midye – Enez border line according to the London Conference of 1912–13 and the Treaty of London ( 1913 ) was a major shock for the Ottoman company and led to the 1913 Ottoman coup d’etat d’état. In the Second Balkan War ( 1913 ) the Ottomans managed to recover their early capital Edirne ( Adrianople ) and its surrounding areas in East Thrace, which was formalised with the Treaty of Constantinople ( 1913 ). The 1913 coup d’etat d’état effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas, making sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic figureheads with no real political power .
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign ( 1915–1916 ) and achieved initial victories against british forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut ( 1915–1916 ) ; but the arab Revolt ( 1916–1918 ) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the russian forces had the upper berth hand from the beginning, specially after the Battle of Sarikamish ( 1914–1915 ). russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the russian Revolution ( 1917 ). During the war, the empire ‘s Armenians were deported to Syria as partially of the armenian genocide. As a consequence, an estimated 600,000 [ 88 ] to more than 1 million, [ 88 ] or up to 1.5 million [ 89 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Armenians were killed. The turkish government has refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only relocated from the eastern war zone. [ 92 ] Genocidal campaigns were besides committed against the empire ‘s other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks. [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. [ 96 ]
Republic of Turkey
The occupation of Istanbul ( 1918 ) and İzmir ( 1919 ) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the institution of the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence ( 1919–1923 ) was waged with the drive of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres ( 1920 ). [ 97 ] By 18 September 1922 the Greek, Armenian and french armies had been expelled, [ 98 ] and the turkish probationary Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the state on 23 April 1920, started to formalise the legal transition from the erstwhile Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November 1922, the turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, frankincense ending 623 years of monarchal Ottoman convention. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, [ 96 ] [ 97 ] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed “ Republic of Turkey ” as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the nation ‘s new capital. [ 99 ] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey. [ 100 ]
Mustafa Kemal became the republic ‘s beginning President and subsequently introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the honest-to-god religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman constitutional monarchy into a turkish nation department of state that would be governed as a parliamentary democracy under a laic fundamental law. [ 102 ] With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname “ Atatürk ” ( Father Turk ). [ 97 ] The Montreux Convention ( 1936 ) restored Turkey ‘s control over the turkish Straits, including the right to militarise the coastlines of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the Sea of Marmara, and to block maritime traffic in wartime. [ 103 ] Following the institution of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, some Kurdish and Zaza tribes, which were feudal ( manorial ) communities led by chieftains ( agha ) during the Ottoman period, became discontented about certain aspects of Atatürk ‘s reforms aiming to modernise the nation, such as secularism ( the Sheikh Said rebellion, 1925 ) [ 104 ] and down reform ( the Dersim rebellion, 1937–1938 ), [ 105 ] and staged armed revolts that were put down with military operations. İsmet İnönü became Turkey ‘s second President following Atatürk ‘s death on 10 November 1938. On 29 June 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained achromatic during most of World War II, but entered the close stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter penis of the United Nations. [ 106 ] In the keep up year, the single-party period in Turkey came to an conclusion, with the first multiparty elections in 1946. In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe .
The democratic Party established by Celâl Bayar won the 1950, 1954 and 1957 general elections and stayed in baron for a ten, with Adnan Menderes as the Prime Minister and Bayar as the President. After fighting as part of the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Turkey subsequently became a establish penis of the OECD in 1961, and an associate degree penis of the EEC in 1963. [ 107 ] The nation ‘s disruptive transition to multiparty democracy was interrupted by military coups d’état in 1960 and 1980, arsenic well as by military memorandums in 1971 and 1997. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] Between 1960 and the end of the twentieth century, the outstanding leaders in turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. Following a ten of Cypriot intercommunal ferocity and the coup d’etat in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organization, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro- Enosis ( union with Greece ) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 by unilaterally exercising Article IV in the Treaty of Guarantee ( 1960 ), but without restoring the status quo ante at the end of the military operation. [ 110 ] In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised lone by Turkey, was established. [ 111 ] The Annan Plan for reunifying the island was supported by the majority of turkish Cypriots, but rejected by the majority of greek Cypriots, in freestanding referendums in 2004. however, negotiations for solving the Cyprus quarrel are still ongoing between Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot political leaders. [ 112 ] The conflict between Turkey and the Kurdistan Workers ‘ Party ( PKK ) ( designated a terrorist administration by Turkey, the United States, [ 113 ] and the European Union [ 114 ] ) has been active since 1984, primarily in the southeast of the country. More than 40,000 people have died as a consequence of the dispute. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] [ 117 ] In 1999 PKK ‘s collapse Abdullah Öcalan was arrested and sentenced for terrorism [ 113 ] [ 114 ] and treachery charges. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] In the past, assorted Kurdish groups have unsuccessfully sought separation from Turkey to create an mugwump Kurdish department of state, while others have more recently pursued provincial autonomy and greater political and cultural rights for Kurds in Turkey. In the twenty-first century some reforms have taken rate to improve the cultural rights of cultural minorities in Turkey, such as the establishment of TRT Kurdî, TRT Arabi and TRT Avaz by the TRT .
Since the liberalization of the turkish economy in the 1980s, the state has enjoyed stronger economic increase and greater political constancy. [ 120 ] Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started entree negotiations with the European Union in 2005. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament called on the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing violations of human rights and the principle of law ; but the negotiations, effectively on appreciation since 2018, remain active as of 2020. [ 123 ] In 2013, far-flung protests erupted in many turkish provinces, sparked by a design to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government disagree. [ 124 ] On 15 July 2016, an abortive coup try tried to oust the government. [ 125 ] As a reaction to the failed coup d’etat d’état, the government carried out mass purges. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] Between 9 October – 25 November 2019, Turkey conducted a military unsavory into north-eastern Syria. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ]
administrative divisions
Turkey has a one structure in terms of administration and this view is one of the most crucial factors shaping the Turkish populace administration. When three powers ( executive, legislative and judiciary ) are taken into account as the main functions of the express, local administrations have little baron. turkey does not have a federal arrangement, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara. local administrations were established to provide services in place and the politics is represented by the state governors ( vali ) and town governors ( kaymakam ). other senior public officials are besides appointed by the cardinal government rather of the mayors ( belediye başkanı ) or elected by constituents. [ 131 ] Turkish municipalities have local anesthetic legislative bodies ( belediye meclisi ) for decision-making on municipal issues. Within this unitary model, Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces ( il or vilayet ) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts ( ilçe ), for a sum of 973 districts. [ 132 ] Turkey is besides subdivided into 7 regions ( bölge ) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic purposes ; this does not refer to an administrative division .
Politics
between 1923 and 2018, Turkey was a parliamentary representative democracy. A presidential system was adopted by referendum in 2017 ; the new system came into effect with the presidential election in 2018 and gives the President accomplished control of the executive, including the power to issue decrees, appoint his own cabinet, draw up the budget, dissolve fantan by calling early elections, and make appointments to the bureaucracy and the courts. [ 133 ] The agency of prime minister has been abolished and its powers ( together with those of the Cabinet ) have been transferred to the president of the united states, who is both head of state and pass of government, and is elected for a five-year term by democratic vote. [ 133 ] Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is the inaugural directly-elected president. Turkey ‘s constitution governs the legal model of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralize country. legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, called the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary is nominally independent from the administrator and the legislature, but the constitutional changes that came into effect with the referendums in 2007, 2010 and 2017 gave larger powers to the President and the govern party for appointing or dismissing judges and prosecutors. [ 134 ] The Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the accord of laws and decrees with the constitution. The Council of State is the court of last fall back for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for all others. [ 135 ]
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey consider chamber in Ankara Universal right to vote for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933 and before most countries, and every turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of long time has the right to vote. There are 600 members of fantan who are elected for a four-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The constitutional Court can strip the public finance of political parties that it deems anti-secular or breakaway, or ban their being altogether. [ 136 ] [ 137 ] The electoral threshold is ten-spot percentage of the votes. [ 138 ] Supporters of Atatürk ‘s reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representing the two diverging views regarding the character of religion in legislation, education and public life. [ 139 ] The Kemalist watch supports a form of democracy with a profane united states constitution and occidentalize culture, while maintaining the necessity of express interposition in the economy, education and early public services ( leftist politics ). [ 139 ] Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a solid tradition of secularism. [ 140 ] however, since the 1980s, issues such as income inequality and class distinction have given rise to Islamism, a movement that supports a larger function for religion in government policies, and in theory supports duty to authority, communal solidarity and social judge ( rightist politics ) ; though what that entails in rehearse is frequently contested. [ 139 ] Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the AKP has been described as becoming increasingly authoritarian. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]
law
Turkey ‘s judicial system has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe. [ clarification needed ] For case, the Turkish Civil Code has been modified by incorporating elements chiefly of the Swiss Civil Code and Code of Obligations, and the german commercial Code. The administrative Code bears similarities with its french counterpart, and the Penal Code with its italian counterpart. [ 141 ] Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In tune with this principle, judicial world power is exercised by freelancer courts on behalf of the turkish nation. The independence and arrangement of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their administration, and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the turkish Constitution. [ 142 ] According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organization, duties and jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforesaid article of the turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories ; which are the judicial Courts, administrative Courts, and military Courts. Each class includes first case courts and high courts. In summation, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that can not be classified promptly as falling within the horizon of one court system. [ 142 ] Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministery of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command. furthermore, there are other law enforcement agencies with specific ( National Intelligence Organization, General Directorate of Customs Protection, etc. ) or local ( Village guards, Municipal Police, etc. ) assignments that are under the legal power of the president or different ministries. [ citation needed ] In the years of government by the AKP and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey ; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their avocation of populace duty. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 146 ] The Turkey 2015 report of the european Commission stated that “ the independence of the judiciary and obedience of the principle of legal separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under solid political pressure. ” [ 143 ]
foreign relations
Turkey is a initiation member of the United Nations ( 1945 ), [ 147 ] the OECD ( 1961 ), [ 148 ] the OIC ( 1969 ), [ 149 ] the OSCE ( 1973 ), [ 150 ] the ECO ( 1985 ), [ 151 ] the BSEC ( 1992 ), [ 152 ] the D-8 ( 1997 ) [ 153 ] and the G20 ( 1999 ). [ 154 ] Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010. [ 155 ] In 2012 Turkey became a negotiation partner of the SCO, and in 2013 became a member of the ACD. [ 156 ] [ 157 ] In line with its traditional western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a cardinal part of turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, applied for associate membership of the EEC ( harbinger of the European Union ) in 1959 and became an consort member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate penis of the western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Turkey ‘s support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey ‘s relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the nation ‘s EU entree wish. [ 158 ] The other defining view of Turkey ‘s extraneous policy was the nation ‘s long-standing strategic alliance with the United States. [ 159 ] [ 160 ] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 articulate american intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding european economies. [ 161 ] The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey ‘s membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the United States ‘ political, economic and diplomatic documentation, including in key issues such as the country ‘s invite to join the European Union. [ 162 ] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey ‘s geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans. [ 163 ]
The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic inheritance, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia, [ 165 ] therefore enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gasoline grapevine from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms character of Turkey ‘s foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit from the caspian Sea river basin to Europe. however, in 1993, Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a gesture of confirm to Azerbaijan ( a Turkic state in the Caucasus region ) during the first Nagorno-Karabakh War, and it remains close. [ 166 ] Armenia in its turn put trade sanctions on turkey after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War. From 31 December 2020, imports from Turkey have been banned due to Turkey ‘s confirm for Azerbaijan in the conflict. [ 167 ] Under the AKP government, Turkey ‘s influence has grown in the once Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans, based on the “ strategic depth ” doctrine ( a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining Turkey ‘s increase engagement in regional foreign policy issues ), besides called Neo-Ottomanism. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] Following the arab spring in December 2010, the choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political resistance groups in the affect countries have led to tensions with some arabian states, such as Turkey ‘s neighbor Syria since the start of the syrian civil war, and Egypt after the oust of President Mohamed Morsi. [ 170 ] [ 171 ]
As of 2021, Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt. [ 172 ] diplomatic relations with Israel were besides severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalised following a deal in June 2016. [ 173 ] These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean, where rich natural flatulence fields have recently been discovered ; [ 174 ] [ 175 ] in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister ( former Prime Minister ) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his “ zero problems with neighbours ” [ 176 ] [ 177 ] foreign policy doctrine. [ 178 ] In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a “ strategic confederation ” against syrian President Bashar al-Assad. [ 179 ] however, following the reconciliation with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its position regarding the solution of the conflict in Syria. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] In January 2018, the turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces, including the release syrian Army and Ahrar al-Sham, [ 183 ] began an interposition in Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed YPG from the enclave of Afrin. [ 184 ] [ 185 ] In 2020, Turkey openly intervened in Libya at the request of the GNA. [ 186 ] There is a dispute over Turkey ‘s maritime boundaries with Greece and Cyprus and drilling rights in the easterly Mediterranean. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] Turkey recognises and supports the Tripoli -based Government of National Accord ( GNA ) in Libya, which has been torn by a civil war since 2014 .
military
The turkish Armed Forces dwell of the General Staff, the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President. President is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate readiness of the armed forces to defend the country. however, the authority to declare war and to deploy the turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign arm forces to be stationed in Turkey rests entirely with the Parliament. [ 189 ] The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are law enforcement agencies with military organization ( ranks, social organization, etc. ) and under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. In wartime, the president can rate sealed units of the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command to operate under the Land Forces Command and Naval Forces Commands respectively. The remaining parts of the Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard continue to carry out their law enforcement missions under the legal power of the Ministry of Interior .
Every fit male Turkish citizen differently not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a class, dependent on education and problem placement. [ 192 ] Turkey does not recognise conscientious protest and does not offer a civilian alternative to military overhaul. [ 193 ] Turkey has the second-largest digest military storm in NATO, after the US Armed Forces, with an estimate strength of 495,000 deployable forces, according to a 2011 NATO estimate. [ 194 ] [ needs update ] Turkey is one of five NATO extremity states which are character of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, in concert with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. [ 195 ] A sum of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the blessing of NATO. [ 196 ] Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. Turkey supported the coalescence forces in the First Gulf War. turkish Armed Forces contribute military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force, Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups. [ 197 ] [ 198 ] Turkey maintains a military unit of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974. [ 199 ] In holocene years, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security and discipline. [ 200 ] [ 201 ] Turkish Armed Forces have abroad military bases in Albania, [ 202 ] Iraq, [ 203 ] Qatar, [ 204 ] and Somalia. [ 205 ]
Human rights
The human rights record of Turkey has been the subject of much controversy and international disapprobation. between 1959 and 2011 the european Court of Human Rights made more than 2400 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations on issues such as Kurdish rights, women ‘s rights, LGBT rights, and media exemption. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] Turkey ‘s human rights record continues to be a meaning obstacle to the country ‘s membership of the EU. [ 209 ] In the latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political ferocity between far-left and reactionary militant groups, which culminated in the military coup of 1980. [ 210 ] The Kurdistan Workers ‘ Party – a.k.a PKK – ( designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States, [ 113 ] the European Union [ 114 ] and NATO [ 211 ] ) was founded in 1978 by a group of Kurdish militants led by Abdullah Öcalan, seeking the foundation of an freelancer Kurdish state based on Marxist-Leninist political orientation. [ 212 ] The initial argue given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] A all-out insurgency began in 1984, when the PKK announced a kurdish bristle. Following the catch and imprisonment of Abdullah Öcalan in 1999, [ 118 ] [ 119 ] the PKK modified its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds and provincial autonomy within Turkey. [ 215 ] [ 216 ] [ 217 ] [ 218 ] Since the conflict began, more than 40,000 people have died, most of whom were turkish Kurds. [ 219 ] The european Court of Human Rights and other international human rights organisations have condemned Turkey for human rights abuses. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] many judgments are related to cases such as civilian deaths in aerial bombardments, [ 220 ] torture, [ 221 ] forced displacements, [ 222 ] destroyed villages, [ 223 ] [ 224 ] [ 225 ] arbitrary arrests, [ 226 ] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists, activists and politicians. [ 227 ]
On 20 May 2016, the Turkish fantan stripped about a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main confrontation CHP party. [ 228 ] In reaction to the failed coup d’etat try on 15 July 2016, over 160,000 judges, teachers, police and civil servants have been suspended or dismissed, 77,000 have been formally arrested, [ 229 ] [ 230 ] and 130 media organisations, including 16 television broadcasters and 45 newspapers, [ 231 ] have been closed by the government of Turkey. [ 232 ] 160 journalists have been imprisoned. [ 233 ]
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the worldly concern ‘s biggest crackdown on media exemption. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] many journalists have been arrested using charges of “ terrorism ” and “ anti-state activities ” such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as “ denigrating Turkishness ” or “ contemptuous Islam ” in an campaign to sow self-censorship. [ 234 ] In 2017, the CPJ identified 81 captive journalists in Turkey ( including the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet, Turkey ‘s oldest newspaper silent in circulation ), all directly held for their published work ( the nation ranked first in the worldly concern in that class, with more journalists in prison than in Iran, Eritrea or China ) ; [ 235 ] while in 2015 Freemuse identified nine musicians imprisoned for their work ( ranking third gear after Russia and China ). [ 236 ] In 2015 Turkey ‘s media was rated as not free by Freedom House. [ 237 ] In its resolution “ The officiate of democratic institutions in Turkey ” on 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that “ recent developments in Turkey pertaining to exemption of the media and of expression, corrosion of the rule of jurisprudence and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in southeast Turkey have ( … ) raised serious questions about the officiate of its democratic institutions. ” [ 238 ] Renowned turkish journalists who were murdered for their opinions include Abdi İpekçi ( 1929–1979, editor-in-chief of Milliyet ) ; Çetin Emeç ( 1935–1990, head columnist and coordinator of Hürriyet ) ; Uğur Mumcu ( 1942–1993, columnist and fact-finding diarist of Cumhuriyet ) ; and Hrant Dink ( 1954–2007, founder and editor-in-chief of Agos ). During the October 2019 unsavory into Syria, turkish forces have been accused of war crimes, such as targeting civilians with white morning star and assorted other human rights violations. [ 239 ] [ 240 ] Turkey has officially rejected the claims, with the Minister of Defense Hulusi Akar stating that chemical weapons do n’t exist in the inventory of the Turkish Armed Forces. [ 241 ] Amnesty International stated that it had gathered testify of war crimes and other violations committed by turkish and Turkey-backed syrian forces who are said to “ have displayed a black ignore for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and illegitimate attacks that have killed and injured civilians ”. [ 242 ]
LGBT rights
homosexual action is legal in Turkey. [ 243 ] however, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence from their relatives, neighbors, etc. [ 244 ] The turkish authorities have carried out many discriminative practices, such as the blockage of LGBTI+ associations, raids on the homes of cheery individuals, and reprimand of websites and magazines. [ 245 ] [ 246 ] [ 247 ] Despite these, LGBT credence in Turkey is growing. In a survey conducted by Kadir Has University in Istanbul in 2016, 33 % of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45 % in 2020. Another review by Kadir Has University in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55 % in 2018 to 47 % in 2019. [ 248 ] [ 249 ] A poll by Ipsos in 2015 found that 27 % of the Turkish public was in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage and 19 % supported civil unions rather. [ 250 ]
geography
Turkey is a transcontinental country bridging Southeastern Europe and Western Asia. asian Turkey, which includes 97 percentage of the state ‘s territory, is separated from european Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. european Turkey comprises only 3 percentage of the state ‘s territory. [ 251 ] Turkey covers an area of 783,562 feather kilometres ( 302,535 square miles ), [ 252 ] of which 755,688 squarely kilometres ( 291,773 square miles ) is in Asia and 23,764 feather kilometres ( 9,175 square miles ) is in Europe. [ 253 ] The country is encircled by seas on three sides : the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey besides contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwestern. [ 254 ] Turkey is divided into seven geographic regions : Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The mismatched north anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow knock. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey ‘s total land area. As a general vogue, the inland Anatolian tableland becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastbound. [ 254 ]
Cappadocia is a region created by the erosion of soft volcanic stone by the wind and rain for centuries. East Thrace ; the european helping of Turkey, is located at the easternmost edge the Balkans. It forms the surround between Turkey and its neighbours Greece and Bulgaria. The asian function of the country largely consists of the peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a high cardinal tableland with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. The Eastern Anatolia Region by and large corresponds to the western part of the armenian Highlands ( the tableland situated between the Anatolian Plateau in the west and the Lesser Caucasus in the north ) [ 255 ] and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey ‘s highest point at 5,137 metres ( 16,854 feet ), [ 256 ] and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country. [ 257 ] Eastern Turkey has a cragged landscape and is family to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia. far from the seashore the climate of Turkey tends to be continental but elsewhere moderate, and is becoming hot, and dry in parts. There are many species of plants and animals .
biodiversity
Turkey ‘s extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diverseness has produced considerable species diversity. [ 258 ] Anatolia is the fatherland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture, and the raving mad ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for world hush grow in Turkey. The diverseness of Turkey ‘s animal is even greater than that of its vegetation. The total of animal species in the whole of Europe is about 60,000, while in Turkey there are over 80,000 ( over 100,000 counting the subspecies ). [ 259 ] The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northerly Turkey, while the Caucasus assorted forests extend across the eastern end of the scope. The area is home to eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, easterly imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, caucasian black gripe, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper. [ 260 ] The narrow coastal denude between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world ‘s few temperate rainforests. [ 261 ] The turkish pine ( Pinus brutia ) is largely found in Turkey and other east mediterranean countries ; the other normally found species of the genus Pinus ( pine ) in Turkey include the nigra, sylvestris, pinea and halepensis. The Turkey oak ( Quercus cerris ) and numerous other species of the genus Quercus ( oak ) exist in Turkey. The most normally found species of the genus Platanus ( plane ) is the orientalis. several godforsaken species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century. [ 262 ] [ 263 ]
There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife security areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park. [ 264 ] In the twenty-first century, threats to biodiversity admit desertification due to climate change in Turkey. [ 265 ] The anatolian leopard is even found in very minor numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey. [ 266 ] [ 267 ] The eurasian lynx and the european beast are other feline species which are presently found in the forests of Turkey. The caspian tiger, immediately extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the twentieth hundred. [ 266 ] [ 268 ] Renowned domestic animals from Ankara, the capital of Turkey, include the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat ; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal ( Anatolian Shepherd ), Malaklı and Akbaş. [ 269 ]
climate
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and meek to cool, besotted winters. [ 270 ] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. [ 270 ] The turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the lone region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. [ 270 ] The eastern separate of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres ( 87 in ) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country. [ 270 ] The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with strong to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. [ 270 ] Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea about every winter, but normally melts in no more than a few days. [ 270 ] however, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. [ 270 ] Mountains close up to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the cardinal anatolian tableland of the inside of Turkey a continental climate with precipitously contrasting seasons. [ 270 ]
Winters on the anatolian tableland are specially dangerous. Temperatures of −30 °C to −40 °C ( −22 °F to −40 °F ) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the stallion year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below -20 °C ( -4 °F ) with the mountains being even colder .
economy
Skyscrapers in the Levent quarter of the Beşiktaş district on the european side of Istanbul, the largest city and fiscal center in Turkey. Turkey is a newly industrialize state, with an upper-middle income economy, which is the twentieth-largest in the worldly concern by nominal GDP, and the eleventh-largest by PPP. According to World Bank estimates, Turkey ‘s GDP per head by PPP is $ 32,278 in 2021, [ 8 ] and approximately 11.7 % of Turks are at gamble of poverty or social exclusion as of 2019. [ 271 ] unemployment in Turkey was 13.6 % in 2019, [ 272 ] and the middle class population in Turkey rose from 18 % to 41 % of the population between 1993 and 2010 according to the World Bank. [ 273 ] [ needs update ] As of September 2021, the extraneous currency reserves of the turkish Central Bank were $ 74.9 billion ( an 8.1 % increase compared to the former calendar month ), its gold reserves were $ 38.5 billion ( a 5.1 % decrease compared to the former month ), while its official reserve assets stood at $ 121.3 billion. [ 274 ] As of October 2021, the foreign currentness deposits of the citizens and residents in turkish banks stood at $ 234 billion, equivalent to around half of all deposits. [ 275 ] [ 276 ] The EU–Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an across-the-board liberalization of tariff rates, and forms one of the most authoritative pillars of Turkey ‘s extraneous trade policy. [ 277 ] The automotive industry in Turkey is goodly, and produced over 1.3 million drive vehicles in 2015, ranking as the 14th largest producer in the global. [ 278 ] turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the global ‘s largest van, bus topology and hand truck manufacturers. turkish shipyards are highly regard both for the production of chemical and petroleum tankers up to 10,000 dwt and besides for their mega yachts. [ 279 ] Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a solid measure of funds for research and development in raw technologies related to these fields. [ 280 ] [ 281 ] [ 282 ] early key sectors of the turkish economy are bank, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, anoint complicate, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. [ citation needed ] however, farming however accounted for a quarter of employment. [ 283 ] [ needs update ] In 2004, it was estimated that 46 percentage of full disposable income was received by the top 20 percentage of income earners, while the lowest 20 percentage received only 6 percentage. [ 284 ] [ needs update ]
A proportional representation of Turkey ‘s exports, 2019 Foreign conduct investment ( FDI ) in Turkey reached 22.05 billion USD in 2007 and 19.26 billion USD in 2015, but has declined in recent years. [ 285 ] In the economic crisis of 2016 it emerged that the huge debts incurred for investment during the AKP government since 2002 had largely been consumed in construction, preferably than invested in sustainable economic growth. [ 286 ] Turkey ‘s megascopic external debt reached $ 453.2 billion at the end of December 2017. [ 287 ] [ needs update ] Turkey ‘s annual current account deficit was $ 47.3 billion at the goal of December 2017, compared to the previous year ‘s human body of $ 33.1 billion. [ 288 ] [ needs update ] In 2020, according to Carbon Tracker, money was being wasted constructing more coal-fired baron stations in Turkey. [ 289 ] Fatih Birol the head of the International Energy Agency said that dodo fuel subsidies should be redirected, for case to the health system. [ 290 ] Fossil fuel subsidies were around 0.2 % of GDP for the first two decades of the twenty-first century, [ 291 ] [ 292 ] and are higher than blank energy subsidies. [ 293 ] The external costs of fossil fuel pulmonary tuberculosis in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5 % of GDP. [ 294 ] In 2020 the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered to support a precisely passage aside from char. [ 295 ]
tourism
tourism in Turkey has increased about every year in the twenty-first century, [ 296 ] and is an important separate of the economy. The turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism presently promotes turkish tourism under the project Turkey Home. Turkey is one of the worldly concern ‘s crown ten-spot address countries, with the highest percentage of alien visitors arriving from Europe ; specially Germany and Russia in holocene years. [ 296 ] In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the global in terms of the act of international tourist arrivals, with 51.2 million foreign tourists visiting the nation. [ 297 ] Turkey has 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and 84 World Heritage Sites in doubtful number. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, which makes it in the third base set in the universe. [ 298 ] According to Euromonitor, Istanbul is the tenth most visit city in the world with 13,433,000 annual visitors as of 2018 and with the annual growth rate of 25.2 %. [ 299 ]
infrastructure
In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey, [ 302 ] including 22 international airports. [ 303 ] İstanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the worldly concern, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers a year. [ 304 ] [ 305 ] ampere well as Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, respective other airlines operate in the country. As of 2014, the area has a roadway network of 65,623 kilometres ( 40,776 miles ). [ 306 ] turkish State Railways started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014. [ 307 ] Opened in 2013, the Marmaray burrow under the Bosphorus connects the railroad track and metro lines of Istanbul ‘s european and asian sides ; while the nearby Eurasia Tunnel ( 2016 ) provides an submarine road connection for drive vehicles. [ 308 ]
The Bosphorus Bridge ( 1973 ), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge ( 1988 ) and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge ( 2016 ) are the three pause bridges connecting the European and asian shores of the Bosphorus strait. The Osman Gazi Bridge ( 2016 ) connects the northerly and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit. The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles pass, connecting Europe and Asia, will become the longest suspension bridge in the earth upon completion. [ 310 ]
many natural natural gas pipelines span the area ‘s district. [ 311 ] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan grapevine, the second long petroleum pipeline in the world, was inaugurated in 2005. [ 312 ] The Blue Stream, a major trans- Black Sea gasoline pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey. The submarine pipeline, Turkish Stream, with an annual capacity around 63 billion cubic metres ( 2,200 billion cubic feet ), allows Turkey to resell Russian accelerator to the perch of Europe. [ 313 ] As of 2018 Turkey consumes 1700 terawatt hours ( TW/h ) of chief energy per year, a little over 20 megawatt hours ( MW/h ) per person, largely from imported dodo fuels. [ 314 ] Although the department of energy policy of Turkey includes reducing fossil-fuel imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single rationality why greenhouse natural gas emissions by Turkey sum to 1 % of the global sum. renewable energy in Turkey is being increased and Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built on the Mediterranean coast : but despite national electricity generation overcapacity dodo fuels are still subsidized. [ 315 ] Turkey has the fifth-highest send use and capacity of geothermal power in the world. [ 316 ]
skill and engineering
TÜBİTAK is the leading representation for developing skill, engineering and initiation policies in Turkey. [ 317 ] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey. [ 318 ] TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic inquiry in nuclear energy, and the growth and execution of passive nuclear tools. [ 319 ]
turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include turkish Aerospace Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center ( UMET ) is a spacecraft product and testing adeptness owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries ( TAI ). The turkish Space Launch System ( UFS ) is a project to develop the satellite launching capability of Turkey. It consists of the structure of a spaceport, the growth of satellite launch vehicles vitamin a well as the constitution of distant earth stations. [ 320 ] [ 321 ] [ 322 ] Türksat is the sole communications satellite operator in Turkey and has launched the Türksat series of satellites into orbit. Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are Turkey ‘s Earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Turkish Ministry of National Defense. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific Earth observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute. In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the Nobel Chemistry Prize for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA. [ 323 ] early turkish scientists include doctor Hulusi Behçet who discovered Behçet ‘s disease and mathematician Cahit Arf who defined the Arf invariant. Turkey was ranked 41th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, and has increased its rank well since 2011, where it was ranked sixty-fifth. [ 324 ]
Demographics
[325]CIA map of areas with a Kurdish majority According to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the state ‘s population was 74.7 million people in 2011, [ 326 ] closely three-quarters of whom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.35 percentage each year. Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4 percentage of the total population ; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percentage ; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percentage. [ 327 ] article 66 of the turkish Constitution defines a “ Turk ” as “ anyone who is bound to the turkish state through the shackle of citizenship ” ; consequently, the legal use of the term “ turkish ” as a citizen of Turkey is unlike from the ethnic definition. [ 328 ] however approximately 70 to 80 percentage of the nation ‘s citizens are cultural Turks. [ 329 ] [ 4 ] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey. [ 330 ] Reliable data on the cultural mix of the population is not available, because turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity. [ 331 ]
Kurds are the largest non-Turkish ethnicity at anywhere from 12-25 per cent of the population. [ 333 ] [ 334 ] The exact figure remains a subject of challenge ; according to Servet Mutlu, “ more often than not, these estimates reflect pro-Kurdish or pro-Turkish sympathies and attitudes quite than scientific facts or eruditeness ”. [ 330 ] Mutlu ‘s 1990 study estimated Kurds made up around 12 per cent of the population, while Mehrdad Izady placed the figure around 25 per cent. [ 335 ] The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van ; a near majority in Şanlıurfa Province ( 47 % ) ; and a large minority in Kars Province ( 20 % ). [ 336 ] In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish diaspora communities exist in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an calculate three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest kurdish population in the world. [ 337 ] Non-Kurdish minorities are believed to make up an estimated 7–12 percentage of the population. [ 4 ] The three “ Non-Muslim “ minority groups recognised in the Treaty of Lausanne were Armenians, Greeks and Jews. other ethnic groups include Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma. [ 4 ] [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] [ 341 ] Turkey is besides home to a Muslim community of Megleno-Romanians. [ 342 ] Before the get down of the syrian civil war in 2011, the calculate total of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million. [ 343 ] As of April 2020, there are 3.6 million syrian refugees in Turkey, who are largely Arabs but besides include syrian Kurds, syrian Turkmen, and early cultural groups of Syria. The huge majority of these are living in Turkey with irregular mansion permits. The turkish government has granted turkish citizenship to refugees who have joined the syrian National Army. [ 344 ] [ 345 ] [ 346 ]
| Largest cities or towns in Turkey TÜİK ‘s address-based calculation from December 2017. |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Istanbul  Ankara |
1 | Istanbul | Istanbul | 14,744,519 | 11 | Mersin | Mersin | 1,005,455 |  İzmir  Bursa |
| 2 | Ankara | Ankara | 4,871,884 | 12 | Urfa | Şanlıurfa | 921,978 | ||
| 3 | İzmir | İzmir | 2,938,546 | 13 | Eskişehir | Eskişehir | 752,630 | ||
| 4 | Bursa | Bursa | 2,074,799 | 14 | Denizli | Denizli | 638,989 | ||
| 5 | Adana | Adana | 1,753,337 | 15 | Kahramanmaraş | Kahramanmaraş | 632,487 | ||
| 6 | Gaziantep | Gaziantep | 1,663,273 | 16 | Samsun | Samsun | 625,410 | ||
| 7 | Antalya | Antalya | 1,311,471 | 17 | Malatya | Malatya | 618,831 | ||
| 8 | Konya | Konya | 1,130,222 | 18 | İzmit | Kocaeli | 570,077 | ||
| 9 | Kayseri | Kayseri | 1,123,611 | 19 | Adapazarı | Sakarya | 492,027 | ||
| 10 | Diyarbakır | Diyarbakır | 1,047,286 | 20 | Erzurum | Erzurum | 422,389 | ||
immigration
Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. immigration to Turkey is the serve by which people migrate to Turkey to reside in the country. Turkey ‘s migrant crisis created after an calculate 2.5 percentage of the population are international migrants. [ 347 ] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the universe, including 3.6 million syrian refugees, as of April 2020. [ 344 ] As part of Turkey ‘s migrant crisis, according to UNHCR, in 2018 Turkey was hosting 63.4 % of all the refugees in the populace, that is 3,564,919 registered refugees from Africa and the Middle East in sum. [ 348 ]
Languages
The official linguistic process is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic lyric in the global. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] It is spoken by 85.54 percentage of the population as a first language. [ 351 ] 11.97 percentage of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as their mother tongue. [ 351 ] Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of 2.39 percentage of the population, and respective other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population. [ 351 ] Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino ( Judesmo ), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and western Armenian. [ 352 ] Megleno-Romanian is besides spoken. [ 342 ]
religion
Sancaklar Mosque is a contemporary mosque in Istanbul Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion ; the turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. [ 353 ] [ 354 ] A 2016 survey by Ipsos, interviewing 17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was the dominant religion in Turkey, adhered to by 82 % of the total population ; religiously unaffiliated people comprised 13 % of the population, while 2 % were Christians. [ 355 ] According to a religiosity poll conducted in Turkey in 2019 by OPTİMAR, 89.5 % of the population identifies as Muslims, 4.5 % believed in God but did not belong to any organized religion, 2.7 % were agnostics, 1.7 % were atheists, and 1.7 % did not answer. [ 356 ] [ 357 ] Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020 interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5 % of the Generation Z in Turkey identify as irreligious. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] The CIA World Factbook reports that Islam is the religion of 99.8 % of the population, with Sunni Muslims as the largest sect, while 0.2 % are Christians and Jews. [ 360 ] however, there are no official governmental statistics specifying the religious beliefs of the turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the nation ‘s census. [ 361 ] Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around 25 million. [ 362 ] [ 363 ] According to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Twelver Shias ( excluding Alevis ) is three million ( 4.2 % ). [ 364 ]
Christianity has a long history in contemporary Turkey, which is the birthplace of numerous christian apostles and saints. Antioch ( Antakya ) is regarded by tradition as the spot where the Gospels were written, and where the followers of Jesus were called Christians for the first fourth dimension. The share of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5 % ( three million followers ) in a population of 16 million to 2.5 % percentage in the early twentieth hundred. [ 366 ] chiefly as a resultant role of the armenian genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, [ 367 ] and the emigration of Christians that began in the former nineteenth century and gained footstep in the first quarter of the twentieth hundred. [ 368 ] nowadays, there are more than 120,000-320,000 people of assorted christian denominations, [ 369 ] representing less than 0.2 % of Turkey ‘s population, [ 370 ] including an estimated 80,000 oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics, [ 371 ] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks, [ 372 ] 5,000 greek Orthodox, smaller numbers of Protestants, [ 373 ] and 512 Mormons. [ 374 ] Currently, there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey. [ 375 ] contemporary Turkey continues to have a small jewish population ; [ 376 ] with around 26,000 Jews, the huge majority of whom are Sephardi. [ 377 ] Turkey has the biggest jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries. [ 378 ] [ 379 ] In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9 % of turkish respondents identified as atheists. [ 380 ] The Association of Atheism, the first official atheist arrangement in the Balkans and the Middle East, was founded in 2014. [ 381 ] [ 382 ] Some religious and worldly officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growing among turkish people. [ 383 ] [ 384 ] [ 385 ] [ 386 ]
education
Darülfünûn. On 1 August 1933 it was reorganised and became the Republic’s first university.[387]Istanbul University was founded in 1453 as a. On 1 August 1933 it was reorganised and became the Republic’s first university. The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary department of education. [ 388 ] This is compulsory and lasts twelve years : four years each of primary school, center school and high school. [ 389 ] Basic education in Turkey is said to lag behind early OECD countries, with meaning differences between high and low performers. [ 390 ] Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutor classes when they are ten-spot years previous. [ 390 ] As of 2017, there are 190 universities in Turkey. [ 391 ] Except for the open education Faculties ( AÖF ) at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk University ; entrance is regulated by the home Student Selection and Placement System ( ÖSYS ) interrogation, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their operation. [ 392 ] According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University, followed by Bilkent University and Koç University, Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University. [ 393 ] All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board ( YÖK ), whose head is appointed by the President of Turkey ; and since 2016 the President directly appoints all rectors of all department of state and private universities. [ 394 ]
Health
Acıbadem Hospital in Altunizade region of Üsküdar, İstanbul The Ministry of Health has run a universal populace healthcare system since 2003. [ 395 ] Known as Universal Health Insurance ( Genel Sağlık Sigortası ), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, presently at 5 %. [ 395 ] Public-sector fund covers approximately 75.2 % of health expenditures. [ 395 ] Despite the universal joint health caution, total consumption on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3 % of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3 %. [ 395 ] average life anticipation is 78.6 years ( 75.9 for males and 81.3 for females ), compared with the EU average of 81 years. [ 395 ] Turkey has one of the highest rates of fleshiness in the world, with closely one one-third ( 29.5 % ) of its adult population having a body aggregate index ( BMI ) value that is 30 or above. [ 396 ] Air contamination in Turkey is a major lawsuit of early end. [ 397 ] There are many individual hospitals in the state. Turkey benefits from aesculapian tourism in the holocene years. Health tourism earns above $ 1 billion to Turkey in 2019. Some 60 % of the income is obtained from credit card surgery and a total of 662,087 patients get serve in the country survive year within the telescope of health tourism. [ 398 ]
culture
Turkey has a very divers culture that is a blend of assorted elements of the Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman ( which was itself a lengthiness of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures ) and westerly culture and traditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and distillery continues today. [ 400 ] [ 401 ] This mix in the first place began as a solution of the meet of Turks and their polish with those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West. [ 400 ] [ 402 ] turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a “ modern ” western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values. [ 400 ]
ocular arts
turkish paint, in the western sense, developed actively starting from the mid nineteenth hundred. The first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University ( then the Imperial Military Engineering School ) in 1793, largely for technical purposes. [ 403 ] In the recently nineteenth century, human calculate in the western sense was being established in Turkish painting, specially with Osman Hamdi Bey ( 1842–1910 ). Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha ( c.1857–1939 ). other significant turkish painters in the nineteenth hundred were Ferik İbrahim Paşa ( 1815–1891 ), Osman Nuri Paşa ( c.1839–1906 ), Şeker Ahmet Paşa ( 1841–1907 ), and Hoca Ali Riza ( 1864–1939 ) .
The new turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and Expressionism, placid identical influential in Europe. The late “ Group D ” of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West for more than three decades. other significant movements in turkish paint were the “ Yeniler Grubu ” ( The Newcomers Group ) of the belated 1930s ; the “ On’lar Grubu ” ( Group of Ten ) of the 1940s ; the “ Yeni Dal Grubu ” ( New Branch Group ) of the 1950s ; and the “ Siyah Kalem Grubu ” ( Black Pen Group ) of the 1960s. [ 404 ] internationally acclaim turkish sculptors in the twentieth century include Ali Hadi Bara, Zühtü Müridoğlu, İlhan Koman, Kuzgun Acar and Ali Teoman Germaner. carpet ( halı ) and tapestry ( kilim ) weaving is a traditional turkish art form with roots in pre-Islamic times. During its long history, the artwork and craft of weaving carpets and tapestries in Turkey has integrated numerous cultural traditions. apart from the Turkic blueprint patterns that are prevailing, traces of persian and Byzantine patterns can besides be detected. There are besides similarities with the patterns used in armenian, caucasian and kurdish rug designs. The arrival of Islam in Central Asia and the exploitation of Islamic art besides influenced Turkic patterns in the medieval menstruation. The history of the designs, motifs and ornaments used in turkish carpets and tapestries thus reflects the political and cultural history of the Turks and the cultural diversity of Anatolia. however, scientific attempts were abortive, as yet, to attribute a especial design to a specific cultural, regional, or even mobile versus greenwich village custom. [ 405 ]
[406] as well as strong Chinese artistic influences.Ottoman miniature which can be linked to the Persian miniature tradition,as well as strong Chinese artistic influences. Ottoman miniature is linked to the persian miniature tradition, arsenic well as potent Chinese artistic influences. The words tasvir or nakış were used to define the artwork of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called nakkaşhane. [ 407 ] The miniatures were normally not signed, possibly because of the rejection of individualism, but besides because the works were not created wholly by one person ; the head painter designed the composing of the scenery, and his apprentices drew the contour ( which were called tahrir ) with black or color ink and then painted the miniature without creating an illusion of depth. The read/write head painter, and much more often the scriber of the text, were indeed named and depicted in some of the manuscripts. The agreement of position was unlike from that of the nearby european Renaissance painting custom, and the scene depicted frequently included different meter periods and spaces in one word picture. They followed closely the context of the book they were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art. [ 408 ] The earliest examples of turkish newspaper marbling, called ebru in Turkish, are said to be a replicate of the Hâlnâme by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut composition découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and cosmetic paper borders. One early master by the pseudonym of Şebek is mentioned posthumously in the earliest Ottoman textbook on the art known as the Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî, which is dated based on internal attest to after 1615. The instructions for respective ebru techniques in the text are accredited to this victor. Another celebrated 18th-century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Efendi ( fail 1773 ) is accredited with developing motifs and possibly early on floral designs, although attest from India appears to contradict some of these reports. Despite this, marbled motifs are normally referred to as hatip designs in Turkey today. [ 409 ]
literature and field
turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and european traditions in contemporary turkish music and literary arts. [ 412 ] turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era. [ citation needed ] The Tanzimat reforms of the nineteenth century introduced previously unknown western genres, primarily the novel and the short history. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat time period wrote in several genres simultaneously : for exemplify, the poet Nâmık Kemal besides wrote the crucial 1876 novel İntibâh ( Awakening ), while the journalist Şinasi has written, in 1860, the foremost mod Turkish play, the one-act comedy “ Şair Evlenmesi “ ( The Poet ‘s marriage ). Most of the roots of modern turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period : the Edebiyat-ı Cedîde ( New Literature ) motion ; the Fecr-i Âtî ( Dawn of the Future ) movement ; and the Millî Edebiyat ( National Literature ) movement. [ citation needed ]
The first radical step of invention in twentieth century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse expressive style. Another revolution in turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip movement led by Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet. The desegregate of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatised, for example, in the shape of the “ new symbols of the collide and interlacing of cultures ” enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient role of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. [ 413 ] The origin of Turkish field dates back to ancient pagan rituals and oral legends. The dances, music and songs performed during the rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia millennium ago are the elements from which the beginning shows originated. In time, the ancient rituals, myths, legends and stories evolved into theatrical shows. Starting from the 11th-century, the traditions of the Seljuk Turks blended with those of the autochthonal peoples of Anatolia and the interaction between diverse cultures paved the direction for raw plays. [ citation needed ]
After the Tanzimat ( Reformation ) period in the nineteenth century, characters in Turkish field were modernised and plays were performed on European-style stages, with actors wearing european costumes. Following the renovation of constitutional monarchy with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be reflected at the field a well as in diachronic plays. A theatrical conservatory, Darülbedayi-i Osmani ( which became the nucleus of the Istanbul City Theatres ) was established in 1914. During the years of chaos and war, the Darülbedayi-i Osmani continued its activities and attracted the younger generation. numerous turkish playwrights emerged in this era ; some of them wrote on romantic subjects, while others were interested in social problems, and hush others dealt with nationalist themes. The first turkish musicals were besides written in this period. In time, turkish women began to appear on stage, which was an important development in the late Ottoman company. Until then, female roles had lone been played by actresses who were members of Turkey ‘s heathen minorities. today there are numerous secret theatres in the state, together with those which are subsidised by the politics, such as the turkish State Theatres. [ 414 ]
Music and dance
Süperstar by the Turkish media, [415] Referred to asby the turkish media, Ajda Pekkan is a outstanding calculate of turkish pop music, with a career spanning decades and a repertory of diverse melodious styles. Music of Turkey includes chiefly Turkic elements a well as partial influences ranging from Central Asian tribe music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, persian music and Balkan music, arsenic well as references to more modern european and american popular music. The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to a clock when the Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the eleventh hundred and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization. [ 416 ] With the assimilation of immigrants from versatile regions the diversity of melodious genres and musical instrumentation besides expanded. Turkey has besides seen documented tribe music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish and Jewish communities, among others. [ 417 ] many turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number of regional melodious styles. Despite this however, westerly music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a consequence of an opening economy and society. With the support of Sezen Aksu, the resurging popularity of pop music gave emanation to several international turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Tarkan and Sertab Erener. The deep 1990s besides saw an egress of underground music producing alternate turkish rock, electronica, hip-hop, rap and dance music in opposition to the mainstream corporate pop and arabesque genres, which many believe have become excessively commercial. [ 418 ] Internationally acclaimed turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun ( founder and president of the united states of Atlantic Records ), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev .
The turkish Five is a mention used by some authors to identify the five pioneers of western authoritative music in Turkey, namely Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar and Necil Kazım Akses. [ 419 ] internationally acclaimed turkish musicians of western classical music include pianists İdil Biret, Verda Erman, Gülsin Onay, the Pekinel sisters ( Güher and Süher Pekinel ), Ayşegül Sarıca and Fazıl Say ; violinists Ayla Erduran and Suna Kan ; opera singers Semiha Berksoy, Leyla Gencer and Güneş Gürle ; and conductors Emre Aracı, Gürer Aykal, Erol Erdinç, Rengim Gökmen and Hikmet Şimşek. turkish family dance is divers. Hora is performed in East Thrace ; Zeybek in the Aegean Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region ; Teke in the western Mediterranean Region ; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region ; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region ; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region ; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia Region. [ 420 ]
architecture
The Byzantine era is normally dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital to Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Its architecture dramatically influenced the by and by medieval computer architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and became the primary coil progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse. When the Roman Empire went Christian ( vitamin a well as Eastwards ) with its newfangled capital at Constantinople, its architecture became more sensuous and more ambitious. This raw style would come to be known as Byzantine with increasingly exotic domes and ever-richer mosaics, traveled west to Ravenna and Venice and as far north as Moscow. [ citation needed ] The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople ( Istanbul ) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was importantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most celebrated examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years. [ 421 ] Mimar Sinan ( c.1489–1588 ) was the most important architect of the authoritative period in Ottoman computer architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings that were constructed in respective provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century. [ 422 ] Since the eighteenth hundred, turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by european styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan syndicate of Ottoman Armenian court architects. [ 423 ] The Ottoman earned run average waterfront houses ( yalı ) on the Bosphorus besides reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and european architectural styles during the aforesaid period. The First National Architectural Movement in the early twentieth century sought to create a new computer architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The leading architects of this motion were Vedat Tek ( 1873–1942 ), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey ( 1870–1927 ), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu ( 1888–1982 ) and Giulio Mongeri ( 1873–1953 ). [ 424 ] Buildings from this era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul ( 1905–1909 ), Tayyare Apartments ( 1919–1922 ), [ 425 ] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han ( 1911–1926 ), [ 426 ] State Art and Sculpture Museum ( 1927–1930 ), [ 427 ] Ethnography Museum of Ankara ( 1925–1928 ), [ 428 ] the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara ( 1925–1929 ), [ 429 ] the first gear Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara ( 1926–1929 ), [ 430 ] Bebek Mosque, [ 431 ] and Kamer Hatun Mosque. [ 432 ] [ 433 ]
cuisine
turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine. In the early years of the Republic, a few studies were published about regional anatolian dishes but cuisine did not feature heavily in Turkish folkloric studies until the 1980s, when the fledgling tourism industry encouraged the turkish state to sponsor two food symposium. The papers submitted at the symposium presented the history of turkish cuisine on a “ historical continuum ” that dated back to Turkic origins in Central Asia and continued through the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. [ 436 ] many of the papers presented at these first two symposium were unreferenced. Prior to the symposium, the analyze of Turkish culinary culture was first popularised by the publication of Süheyl Ünver ‘s Fifty Dishes in Turkish History in 1948. This record was based on recipes found in an eighteenth hundred Ottoman manuscript. His moment book was about palace cuisine during the reign of Mehmet II. Following the publication of Ünver ‘s book subsequent studies were published, including a 1978 sketch by a historian named Bahaettin Ögel about the Central Asian origins of turkish cuisine. [ 436 ] Ottoman cuisine contains elements of Turkish, Byzantine, Balkan, Armenian, Kurdish, Arab and Persian cuisines. [ 437 ] The area ‘s military position between Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks in gaining complete control of the major deal routes, and an ideal landscape and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the begin of the Ottoman Empire ‘s six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, sherbert and farce and wrapped vegetables became turkish staples. The empire, finally spanning from Austria and Ukraine to Arabia and North Africa, used its estate and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the sixteenth hundred, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I ( 1914–1918 ) and the constitution of the Turkish Republic in 1923, alien food such as french hollandaise sauce and western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet. [ 438 ]
Sports
The most democratic sport in Turkey is affiliation football. [ 439 ] Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000. [ 440 ] The turkish home football team won the tan decoration at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008. [ 441 ] early mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are besides popular. The men ‘s national basketball team won the silver decoration at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and at EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey ; and is one of the most successful at the Mediterranean Games. Turkish basketball club Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three straight seasons ( 2016, 2017 and 2018 ), becoming the european champions in 2017 and runner-up in 2016 and 2018. Another turkish basketball club, Anadolu Efes S.K. won the 2020–21 EuroLeague and the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, were the runner-up of the 2018–19 EuroLeague and the 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup, and finished third base at the 1999–2000 EuroLeague and the 2000–01 SuproLeague. [ 442 ] [ 443 ] Beşiktaş won the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge, [ 444 ] and Galatasaray won the 2015–16 Eurocup. The Final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray. [ 445 ] The women ‘s national basketball team won the silver decoration at the EuroBasket Women 2011 and the bronze decoration at the EuroBasket Women 2013. Like the men ‘s team, the women ‘s basketball team is one of the most successful at the Mediterranean Games .
The women ‘s national volleyball team won the gold decoration at the 2015 european Games, the ash grey decoration at the 2003 european Championship, the tan decoration at the 2011 european Championship, and the bronze decoration at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They besides won multiple medals over multiple decades at the Mediterranean Games. [ 447 ] Women ‘s volleyball clubs, namely Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous european championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women ‘s Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women ‘s Champions League. Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women ‘s Champions League, Vakıfbank besides became the worldly concern supporter by winning the 2013 FIVB Volleyball Women ‘s Club World Championship. Recently Vakıfbank has won the FIVB Volleyball Women ‘s Club World Championship in 2017 and 2018, [ 448 ] [ 449 ] [ 450 ] and the 2017–18 CEV Women ‘s Champions League for the fourth clock time in their history. [ 451 ]
The traditional national frolic of Turkey has been yağlı güreş ( oil wrestling ) since Ottoman times. [ 452 ] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestle tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the worldly concern. [ 453 ] [ 454 ] In the 19th and early twentieth centuries, Ottoman Turkish oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning populace colossus wrestling championship titles. International wrestle styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestle and Greco-Roman wrestle are besides democratic, with many european, World and Olympic championship titles won by turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team. [ 455 ]
Media and cinema
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, respective twelve newspapers, a fat and profitable national cinema and a rapid emergence of broadband Internet consumption appoint a vibrant media diligence in Turkey. [ 457 ] The majority of the television audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The air media have a very high gear penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available. [ 458 ] The Radio and Television Supreme Council ( RTÜK ) is the politics body overseeing the broadcast media. [ 458 ] [ 459 ] By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk. [ 460 ] turkish television receiver drama are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey ‘s borders and are among the area ‘s most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations. [ 461 ] After sweeping the Middle East ‘s television market over the past ten, turkish shows have aired in more than a twelve South and central american countries in 2016. [ 462 ] Turkey is today the world ‘s irregular largest exporter of television series. [ 463 ]
Yeşilçam is the nickname that refers to the Turkish film artwork and industry. The first movie exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers ‘ 1895 film, L’Arrivée d’un train en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in 1896. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos’taki Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı ( Demolition of the Russian Monument at San Stefano ), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The first narrative film, Sedat Simavi ‘s The Spy, was released in 1917. Turkey ‘s inaugural voice film was shown in 1931. turkish directors like Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous external awards such as the Palme d’Or and Golden Bear. [ 464 ] Despite legal provisions, media exemption in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, with a abrupt descent following the failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016. [ 465 ] As of December 2016, at least 81 journalists were imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 news outlets were closed. [ 235 ] Freedom House lists Turkey ‘s media as not free. [ 237 ] The media crackdowns besides extend to Internet censoring with Wikipedia getting blocked between 29 April 2017 and 15 January 2020. [ 466 ] [ 467 ]
See besides
Notes
- ^Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] (
) turkish :
- ^[23] Scholars give several reasons for Turkey’s [24] turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has said “ Our attitude on the armenian consequence has been clear from the beginning. We will never accept the accusations of genocide ” .Scholars give several reasons for Turkey ‘s position including the preservation of home identity, the demand for reparations and territorial concerns .
References
farther interpretation
- Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today. Overlook. ISBN 978-1-58567-615-6.
- Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 978-1-58567-581-4.
- Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, BC: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p., ill. with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9
- Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Çitlembik. ISBN 978-9944-424-01-1.
- Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN 1-903973-56-2.
- General
- turkey.com – Topical multilingual website about Turkey.
- Tourism
- Government
- Economy