A dutch speaker. Dutch ( Nederlands [ ˈneːdərlɑnts ] ( ) ) is a West Germanic language spoken by about 25 million people as a first language [ 4 ] and 5 million people as a second gear linguistic process, constituting most of the population of the Netherlands ( where it is the alone official speech countrywide ) [ 5 ] and about 60 % of the population of Belgium ( as one of three official languages ). [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] It is the third most wide spoken Germanic language, after its close up relatives English and German.
Reading: Dutch language – Wikipedia
Outside the broken Countries, it is the native lyric of the majority of the population of Suriname where it besides holds an official status, as it does in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, which are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and are located in the Caribbean. Historical linguistic minorities on the verge of extinction remain in parts of France [ 8 ] and Germany, and in Indonesia, [ nitrogen 1 ] while up to half a million native speakers may reside in the United States, Canada and Australia combined. [ north 2 ] The Cape Dutch dialects of Southern Africa have evolved into Afrikaans, a mutually intelligible daughter linguistic process [ nitrogen 3 ] which is spoken to some degree by at least 16 million people, chiefly in South Africa and Namibia. [ n 4 ] dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English [ normality 5 ] and is colloquially said to be “ roughly in between ” them. [ north 6 ] Dutch, like English, has not undergone the high german accordant shift, does not use Germanic umlaut as a grammatical marker, has largely abandoned the habit of the subjunctive, and has levelled much of its morphology, including most of its event organization. [ north 7 ] Features shared with german include the survival of two to three grammatical genders —albeit with few grammatical consequences [ normality 8 ] —as well as the function of modal particles, [ 9 ] final-obstruent devoice, and a exchangeable password order. [ nitrogen 9 ] Dutch vocabulary is largely Germanic and incorporates slightly more romanticism loans than german but far fewer than English. [ north 10 ]
name [edit ]
In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the native official name for Dutch is Nederlands. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Sometimes Vlaams ( “ Flemish “ ) is used ampere well to describe Standard Dutch in Flanders, whereas Hollands ( “ Hollandic “ ) is occasionally used as a colloquial term for the standard terminology in the central and northwestern parts of the Netherlands. [ 12 ] English is the merely lyric to use the adjective Dutch for the linguistic process of the Netherlands and Flanders or something else from the Netherlands. The parole is derived from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz. The shank of this son, *þeudō, mean “ people ” in Proto-Germanic, and *-iskaz was an adjective-forming suffix, of which -ish is the modern English form. Theodiscus was its romanize form [ 14 ] and used as an adjectival denote to the Germanic vernaculars of the early Middle Ages. In this common sense, it meant “ the terminology of the common people ”. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the non -native language of writing and the Catholic Church. [ 15 ] It was foremost recorded in 786, when the Bishop of Ostia writes to Pope hadrian I about a synod taking identify in Corbridge, England, where the decisions are being written down “ tam Latine quam theodisce ” meaning “ in Latin equally well as coarse vernacular ”. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] In northwestern West Francia ( i.e. modern Belgium ) the term would take on a new mean during the early on Middle Ages, when, within the context of a highly dichromatic linguistic landscape, it came to be the antonym of *walhisk ( Romance-speakers, specifically Old French ). [ 19 ] The discussion, immediately rendered as dietsc ( Southwestern variant ) or duutsc ( Central and Northern Variant ), could refer to the Dutch language itself, ampere well as a broader Germanic category depending on context. During the High Middle Ages “ Dietsc/Duutsc ” was increasingly used as an umbrella term for the particular Germanic dialects spoken in the low Countries, its meaning being largely implicitly provided by the regional orientation of medieval Dutch society : apart from the higher echelons of the clergy and nobility, mobility was largely static and hence while “ Dutch ” could by propagation besides be used in its earlier sense, referring to what to today would be called Germanic dialects as opposed to Romance dialects, in many cases it was understand or mean to refer to the linguistic process now known as dutch. [ citation needed ] [ 20 ] In the low Countries Dietsch or its early Modern Dutch human body Duytsch as an endonym for Dutch gradually went out of coarse use and was gradually replaced by the Dutch endonym Nederlands. This appellation ( beginning attested in 1482 ) started at the Burgundian court in the fifteenth hundred, although the use of neder, laag, bas, and inferior ( “ nether ” or “ low ” ) to refer to the area known as the Low Countries goes back further in clock time, with the Romans referring to the region as Germania Inferior ( “ Lower ” Germania ). [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] It is a reference to the humble Countries ‘ downriver localization at the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta near the North Sea. From 1551, the appointment Nederlands received firm rival from the identify Nederduytsch ( literally “ humble dutch ”, Dutch being used in its antediluvian common sense covering all continental West Germanic languages ). It is a calque of the aforesaid Roman state Germania Inferior and an attempt by early on Dutch grammarians to give their speech more prestige by linking it to Roman times. Likewise, Hoogduits ( “ high german ” ) and Overlands ( “ Upper-landish ” ) came into manipulation as a dutch exonym for the diverse german dialects, used in neighbor german states. [ 24 ] Use of Nederduytsch was popular in the sixteenth century but ultimately lost out over Nederlands during the close of the eighteenth century, with (Hoog)Duytsch establishing itself as the Dutch exonym for german during this same menstruation. In the nineteenth century Germany saw the upgrade of the classification of dialects, with german dialectologists terming the german dialects spoken in the mountainous confederacy of Germany as Hochdeutsch ( “ high german ” ). subsequently, german dialects spoken in the north were designated as Niederdeutsch ( “ depleted German ” ). The names for these dialects were calqued by Dutch linguistst as Nederduits and Hoogduits. As a result, Nederduits no longer serves as a synonym for the dutch linguistic process. In the nineteenth hundred, the term “ Diets ” was revived by dutch linguists and historians equally well, as a poetic diagnose for Middle Dutch and its literature. [ 25 ]
history [edit ]
Old dutch can be discerned more or less around the same clock as Old English ( Anglo-Saxon ), Old High German, Old Frisian, and Old Saxon. These names are derived from the mod standard languages. In this age no standard languages had even developed, while a perfect West Germanic dialect continuum remained deliver ; the division reflects the contingent future contribution dialect groups would have to the late languages. The early shape of Dutch was a set of Franconian dialects spoken by the salian frank Franks in the fifth century. These happened to develop through Middle Dutch to Modern Dutch over the course of fifteen centuries. [ 26 ] During that period, they forced Old Frisian back from the western seashore to the north of the Low Countries, and influenced or even replaced Old Saxon address in the east ( adjacent with the depleted German area ). On the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in contemporary France and Germany. The part into Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is largely conventional, since the transition between them was very gradual. One of the few moments when linguists can detect something of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. The growth of the dutch terminology is illustrated by the be conviction in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch :
- Irlôsin sol an frithe sêla mîna fan thên thia ginâcont mi, wanda under managon he was mit mi (Old Dutch)
- Erlossen sal [hi] in vrede siele mine van dien die genaken mi, want onder menegen hi was met mi (Middle Dutch)
- Verlossen zal hij in vrede ziel mijn van degenen die genaken mij, want onder menigen hij was met mij (Modern Dutch, same word order)
- Hij zal mijn ziel in vrede verlossen van degenen die mij genaken, want onder menigen was hij met mij (Modern Dutch, default word order)[27]
- He will deliver my soul in peace from those who approach me, because, amongst many, he was with me (English)[28]
Origins [edit ]
Among the indo-european languages, Dutch is grouped within the Germanic languages, meaning it shares a common ancestor with languages such as English, German, and the scandinavian languages. All Germanic languages are subject to the Grimm ‘s jurisprudence and Verner ‘s jurisprudence audio shifts, which originated in the Proto-Germanic linguistic process and define the basic features differentiating them from other indo-european languages. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age. [ 29 ] The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups : East ( immediately extinct ), West, and North Germanic. [ 30 ] They remained mutually apprehensible throughout the Migration Period. dutch is character of the West Germanic group, which besides includes English, Scots, Frisian, low German ( Old Saxon ) and high German. It is characterized by a numeral of phonological and morphologic innovations not found in North or East Germanic. [ 31 ] The West Germanic varieties of the clock time are by and large split into three dialect groups : Ingvaeonic ( North Sea Germanic ), Istvaeonic ( Weser-Rhine Germanic ) and Irminonic ( Elbe Germanic ). It appears that the Frankish tribes fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest, which are still seen in modern Dutch .
Frankish ( 3rd–5th century ) [edit ]
The Frankish speech itself is not directly attested, the entirely possible exception being the Bergakker dedication, found near the Dutch city of Tiel, which may represent a primary coil record of 5th-century Frankish. Although some home names recorded in Roman text such as vadam ( modern dutch : wad, english : “ mudflat ” ), could arguably be considered as the oldest individual “ dutch ” words, the Bergakker inscription yields the oldest testify of Dutch morphology. however, interpretations of the respite of the text miss any consensus. [ 32 ] The Franks emerged in the southerly Netherlands ( salian frank Franks ) and central Germany ( Ripuarian Franks ), and late descended into Gaul. The name of their kingdom survives in that of France. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans for about 300 years, their lyric, Frankish, became extinct in most of France and was replaced by later forms of the lyric throughout Luxembourg and Germany in around the seventh hundred. It was replaced in France by Old French ( a Romance lyric with a considerable Old Frankish influence ). however, the Old Franconian linguistic process did not die out at large, as it continued to be spoken in the depleted Countries, and subsequently evolved into what is now called Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch in the low Countries. In fact, Old Frankish could be reconstructed from Old Dutch and Frankish loanwords in Old French. [ 33 ]
Old Dutch ( 5th–12th century ) [edit ]
Area in which Old Dutch was spoken The terminus Old Dutch or Old Low Franconian [ 34 ] [ 35 ] refers to the laid of Franconian dialects ( i.e. West Germanic varieties that are assumed to have evolved from Frankish ) spoken in the low Countries during the early Middle Ages, from around the 5th to the twelfth hundred. [ 36 ] Old Dutch is by and large recorded on fragmental relics, and words have been reconstructed from Middle Dutch and Old Dutch loanwords in French. [ 37 ] Old Dutch is regarded as the primary phase in the exploitation of a separate Dutch language. It was spoken by the descendants of the salian frank Franks who occupied what is now the southern Netherlands, northern Belgium, share of northerly France, and parts of the Lower Rhine regions of Germany. The high german consonant shift, moving over Western Europe from south to west, caused a differentiation with the Central and High Franconian in Germany. The latter would as a consequence evolve ( along with Alemannic, Bavarian and Lombardic ) into Old high German. At more or less the same time the Ingvaeonic nasal consonant fricative consonant law, moving over Western Europe from west to east, led to the development of Old English ( or Anglo-Saxon ), Old Frisian and Old Saxon. hardly influenced by either development, Old Dutch credibly remained relatively close to the original linguistic process of the Franks. however, the terminology did experience developments of its own, such as identical early final-obstruent devoice. In fact, the discovery at Bergakker indicates that the linguistic process may already have experienced this shift during the Old Frankish menstruation .
The Utrecht baptismal vow Attestations of Old Dutch sentences are extremely rare. The language is by and large recorded on fragmental relics, and words have been reconstructed from Middle Dutch and lend words from Old Dutch in other languages. [ 38 ] The oldest recorded is found in the Salic law. In this frankish document written around 510 the oldest dutch sentence has been identified : Maltho thi afrio lito ( “ I say to you, I free you, serf ” ) used to free a serf. Another old break up of Dutch is Visc flot aftar themo uuatare ( “ A pisces was swimming in the water ” ). The oldest conserved larger Dutch text is the Utrecht baptismal vow ( 776–800 ) starting with Forsachistu diobolae … ec forsacho diabolae ( litt. : “ Forsake you the annoy ? … I forsake the hellion ” ). If only for its poetic capacity, the most celebrated Old Dutch conviction is probably Hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu, wat unbidan we nu ( “ All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for ” ), is dated to around the class 1100, written by a flemish monk in a convent in Rochester, England. Since the conviction speaks to the resource, it is frequently mistakenly stated as the oldest dutch prison term .
Middle Dutch ( 12th–15th hundred ) [edit ]
Old Dutch naturally evolved into Middle Dutch. The year 1150 is much cited as the time of the discontinuity, but it actually marks a time of exuberant Dutch writing ; during this period a rich Medieval Dutch literature developed. There was at that clock time no overarching standard speech ; Middle Dutch is rather a collective name for a number of closely related, mutually intelligible dialects spoken in the former Old Dutch area. Where Old dutch fragments are very intemperate to read for untrained Modern Dutch speakers, the assorted literary works of Middle Dutch are slightly more accessible. [ 39 ] The most luminary difference between Old and Middle Dutch is in a feature of speech of manner of speaking known as vowel reduction. Round vowels in word-final syllables are rather frequent in Old Dutch ; in Middle Dutch, such vowels are leveled to a schwa. The Middle Dutch dialect areas were affected by political boundaries. The sphere of political charm of a certain ruler often besides created a sphere of linguistic influence, with the language within the sphere becoming more homogeneous. Following the contemporary political divisions they are in club of importance :
modern Dutch ( 15th century–present ) [edit ]
Biblia […] Uyt de Oorspronckelijcke talen in onse Neder-landtsche tale getrouwelijck over-geset. (English: From the Original languages into our Dutch language faithfully translated.[40] Title page of the Statenvertaling ( 1637 ) reads : ( english : From the original languages into our dutch speech faithfully translated. A process of standardization started in the Middle Ages, particularly under the determine of the Burgundian Ducal Court in Dijon ( Brussels after 1477 ). The dialects of Flanders and Brabant were the most influential around this clock. The process of calibration became much stronger at the get down of the sixteenth century, chiefly based on the urban dialect of Antwerp. The 1585 fall of Antwerp to the spanish army led to a flight to the northerly Netherlands, where the Dutch Republic declared its independence from Spain. This influenced the urban dialects of the province of Holland. In 1637, a further crucial pace was made towards a unite linguistic process, [ 41 ] when the Statenvertaling, the first major bible translation into Dutch, was created that people from all over the new democracy could understand. It used elements from versatile, even Dutch Low Saxon, dialects but was predominantly based on the urban dialects of Holland of post sixteenth century. [ 42 ] In the southern Netherlands ( now Belgium and Luxembourg ), developments were unlike. Under subsequent spanish, austrian and french principle, the calibration of dutch language came to a deadlock. The state, law, and increasingly education used French, so far more than half the belgian population were speaking a variety of Dutch. In the path of the nineteenth hundred, the Flemish Movement stood up for the rights of dutch speakers, by and large referred to as “ flemish ”. however, the dialect magnetic declination was a serious disadvantage in the face of the standardize francophony. [ 43 ] Since calibration is a drawn-out serve, Dutch-speaking Belgium associated itself with the standard linguistic process that had already developed in the Netherlands over the centuries. consequently, the site in Belgium is basically no different from that in the Netherlands, although there are recognizable differences in pronunciation, comparable to the pronunciation differences between standard British and standard American English. [ 44 ] In 1980 the Netherlands and Belgium concluded the Language Union Treaty. This treaty lays down the principle that the two countries must gear their speech policy to each other, among other things, for a coarse system of spelling .
classification [edit ]
The simplified relation back between the West Germanic languages
dutch belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages, paired with its baby language Limburgish or East Low Franconian. Its closest relative is the mutually apprehensible daughter language Afrikaans. other West Germanic languages related to Dutch are German, English and the frisian languages and the un-standardised languages low german and yiddish. Dutch stands out in combining some Ingvaeonic characteristics ( occurring systematically in English and Frisian and reduced in saturation from west to east over the continental West Germanic plane ) with dominant allele Istvaeonic characteristics, some of which are besides incorporated in German. unlike german, Dutch ( aside from Limburgish ) has not been influenced at all by the south to north movement of the high german consonant shift and had some changes of its own. [ normality 11 ] The pile of these changes resulted over clock time in branch, but relate standard languages with assorted degrees of similarities and differences between them. For a comparison between the West Germanic languages, see the sections Morphology, Grammar and Vocabulary .
Dialects [edit ]
dutch dialects are primarily the dialects that are both relate with the dutch language and are spoken in the same language sphere as the Dutch standard lyric. Although heavily under the charm of the standard language, some of them remain unusually [ citation needed ] divers and are found in the Netherlands and in the Brussels and Flemish regions of Belgium. The areas in which they are speak frequently correspond with erstwhile medieval counties and duchies. The Netherlands ( but not Belgium ) distinguishes between a dialect and a streektaal ( “ regional lyric “ ). Those words are actually more political than linguistic because a regional speech unites a big group of very different varieties. such is the case with the Gronings dialect, which is considered a variety of the Dutch Low Saxon regional language, but it is relatively distinct from early Dutch Low Saxon varieties. besides, some dutch dialects are more outside from the dutch criterion language than some varieties of a regional speech are. Within the Netherlands, a further differentiation is made between a regional terminology and a disjoined language, which is the case with the ( standardised ) West frisian linguistic process. It is spoken aboard Dutch in the state of Friesland. dutch dialects and regional languages are not spoken angstrom often as they used to be, specially in the Netherlands. Recent research by Geert Driessen shows that the use of dialects and regional languages among both Dutch adults and youth is in big decline. In 1995, 27 percentage of the Dutch adult population spoke a dialect or regional language on a regular basis, but in 2011, that was no more than 11 percentage. In 1995, 12 percentage of children of chief school age spoke a dialect or regional language, but in 2011, that had declined to 4 percentage. Of the formally recognized regional languages Limburgish is spoken the most ( in 2011 among adults 54 %, among children 31 % ) and Dutch Low Saxon the least ( adult 15 %, children 1 % ). The decline of the West frisian lyric in Friesland occupies a middle situation ( adult 44 %, children 22 % ). Dialects are most much spoken in rural areas, but many cities have a distinct city dialect. For exemplar, the city of Ghent has identical distinct “ thousand ”, “ e ” and “ roentgen ” sounds that greatly differ from its surrounding villages. The Brussels dialect combines Brabantian with words adopted from Walloon and French. Some dialects had, until recently, extensions across the borders of other standard language areas. In most cases, the heavy influence of the standard linguistic process has broken the dialect continuum. Examples are the Gronings dialect spoken in Groningen a well as the closely relate varieties in adjacent East Frisia ( Germany ). south Guelderish ( Zuid-Gelders ) is a dialect spoken in southerly Gelderland, the northerly tiptoe of Limburg, and northeast of North Brabant ( Netherlands ), but besides in adjacent parts of North Rhine-Westphalia ( Germany ). Limburgish ( Limburgs ) is spoken in Limburg ( Belgium ) arsenic well as in the remaining part of Limburg ( Netherlands ) and extends across the german border. West Flemish ( Westvlaams ) is spoken in West Flanders, the westerly part of Zeelandic Flanders and besides in french Flanders, where it virtually became extinct to make room for French .
dialect groups [edit ]
The West Flemish group of dialects, spoken in West Flanders and Zeeland, is so distinct that it might be considered as a separate speech variant, although the impregnable significance of language in belgian politics would prevent the government from classifying them as such. An curio of the dialect is that, the voiced velar fricative consonant ( written as “ gram ” in Dutch ) shifts to a voiced glottal fricative ( written as “ planck’s constant ” in Dutch ), while the letter “ heat content ” becomes mute ( like in French ). As a result, when West Flemings attempt to talk Standard Dutch, they are often ineffective to pronounce the g-sound, and pronounce it like to the h-sound. This leaves, for exemplar, no difference between “ held ” ( hero ) and “ geld ” ( money ). Or in some cases, they are aware of the problem, and hyper-correct the “ henry ” into a voice velar fricative or g-sound, again leaving no deviation. The West Flemish variety historically spoken in adjacent parts in France is sometimes called french Flemish and is listed as a french minority speech. however, only a very little and aging minority of the French-Flemish population still speaks and understands West Flemish. Hollandic is spoken in Holland and Utrecht, though the original forms of this dialect ( which were heavily influenced by a West frisian substrate and, from the sixteenth hundred on, by Brabantian dialects ) are now relatively rare. The urban dialects of the Randstad, which are Hollandic dialects, do not diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there is a authorize remainder between the city dialects of Rotterdam, The Hague, Amsterdam and Utrecht. In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are distillery being used, particularly north of Amsterdam. Another group of dialects based on Hollandic is that talk in the cities and larger towns of Friesland, where it partially displaced West Frisian in the sixteenth hundred and is known as Stadsfries ( “ Urban Frisian ” ). Hollandic together with bury alia South Guelderish and North Brabantian, but without Stadsfries, are the Central Dutch dialects. Brabantian is named after the diachronic Duchy of Brabant, which corresponded chiefly to the provinces of North Brabant and southern Gelderland, the belgian provinces of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant, american samoa well as Brussels ( where its native speakers have become a minority ) and the state of Walloon Brabant. Brabantian expands into small parts in the west of Limburg while its potent determine on the East Flemish of East Flanders and eastern Zeelandic Flanders [ 45 ] weakens towards the west. In a small area in the northwesterly of North Brabant ( Willemstad ), Hollandic is spoken. Conventionally, the South Guelderish dialects are distinguished from Brabantian, but there are no objective criteria apart from geography to do thus. Over 5 million people live in an area with some phase of Brabantian being the overriding colloquial language out of the area ‘s 22 million Dutch-speakers. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] Limburgish, spoken in both belgian Limburg and Netherlands Limburg and in adjacent parts in Germany, is considered a dialect in Belgium, while having obtained the official condition of regional lyric in the Netherlands. Limburgish has been influenced by the Ripuarian varieties like the Colognian dialect, and has had a slightly unlike development since the late Middle Ages .
regional languages [edit ]
Two dialect groups have been given the official condition of regional language ( or streektaal ) in the Netherlands. Like several other dialect groups, both are character of a dialect continuum that continues across the national surround .
Dutch Low Saxon [edit ]
The Dutch Low Saxon dialect sphere comprises the provinces of Groningen, Drenthe and Overijssel, a well as parts of the provinces of Gelderland, Flevoland, Friesland and Utrecht. This group, which is not low Franconian but rather Low Saxon and close to neighbouring depleted German, has been elevated by the Netherlands ( and by Germany ) to the legal status of streektaal ( regional language ) according to the european Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is regarded as dutch for a number of reasons. From the 14th to fifteenth century ahead, its urban centers ( Deventer, Zwolle, Kampen, Zutphen and Doesburg ) have been increasingly influenced by the western written Dutch and became a linguistically shuffle area. From the seventeenth hundred ahead, it was gradually integrated into the dutch lyric area. [ 48 ] Dutch Low Saxon used to be at one end of the low german dialect continuum. however, the national border has given means to dialect boundaries coinciding with a political edge, because the traditional dialects are strongly influenced by the national standard varieties. [ 49 ] Cross-the-border dialects now separated by a plain gap besides include South Guelderish and Limburgish on the dutch side of the edge and Meuse-Rhenish on the german side of the frame. [ 50 ]
Limburgish [edit ]
While a reasonably heterogeneous group of Low Franconian dialects, Limburgish has received official condition as a regional lyric in the Netherlands and Germany, but not in Belgium. Due to this official recognition, it receives security by chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages .
Daughter and sister languages [edit ]
Afrikaans, although to a significant degree mutually apprehensible with Dutch, is not a dialect but a separate standardised language. It is spoken in South Africa and Namibia. As a daughter linguistic process of Dutch, Afrikaans evolved chiefly from seventeenth century Dutch dialects, but was influenced by assorted early languages in South Africa. West Frisian ( Westerlauwers Fries ), along with Saterland Frisian and North Frisian, evolved from the lapp outgrowth of the West Germanic languages as Old English ( i.e. Anglo-Frisian ) and are therefore genetically more closely related to English and Scots than to Dutch. The different influences on the respective languages, however, peculiarly that of Norman French on English and Dutch on West Frisian, have rendered English quite clear-cut from West Frisian, and West Frisian less discrete from dutch than from English. Although under heavy influence of the Dutch standard language, it is not mutually apprehensible with Dutch and considered a sister language of Dutch, like English and German. [ 51 ]
geographic distribution [edit ]
Approximate distribution of native Dutch speakers worldwide .
Netherlands ( 70.8 % )
Belgium ( 27.1 % )
Suriname ( 1.7 % )
Caribbean ( 0.1 % )
other ( 0.3 % )
| Country | Speakers | Year |
|---|---|---|
| Netherlands | 17,000,000[4] | 2020 |
| Belgium | 6,500,000[4] | 2020 |
| Suriname | 400,000[4] | 2020 |
| Curaçao | 12,000[52] | 2011 |
| Aruba | 6,000[53] | 2010 |
| Caribbean Netherlands | 3,000[54] | 2018 |
| Sint Maarten | 1,500[55] | 2011 |
| Total worldwide | 24,000,000 | N/A |
dutch is an official speech of the Netherlands proper, Belgium, Suriname, the dutch Caribbean municipalities ( St. Eustatius, Saba and Bonaire ), Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten. dutch is besides an official language of several international organisations, such as the European Union, [ 56 ] Union of South american english Nations [ 57 ] and the Caribbean Community. At an academic degree, Dutch is taught in about 175 universities in 40 countries. About 15,000 students worldwide survey Dutch at university. [ 58 ]
Europe [edit ]
In Europe, Dutch is the majority linguistic process in the Netherlands ( 96 % ) and Belgium ( 59 % ) a well as a minority language in Germany and northern France ‘s french Flanders. Though Belgium as a wholly is multilingual, the four speech areas into which the country is divided ( Flanders, francophone Wallonia, bilingual Brussels and the German-speaking Community ) are largely monolingual. The Netherlands and Belgium produce the huge majority of music, films, books and other media written or spoken in Dutch. [ 59 ] Dutch is a monocentric language, at least what concerns its written shape, with all speakers using the same standard shape ( authorized by the dutch Language Union ) based on a dutch orthography defined in the alleged “ green Booklet “ authoritative dictionary and employing the Latin rudiment when writing ; however, pronunciation varies between dialects. indeed, in stark contrast to its written uniformity, Dutch lacks a unique prestige dialect and has a large dialectal continuum consisting of 28 independent dialects, which can themselves be further divided into at least 600 distinct varieties. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In the Netherlands, the Hollandic dialect dominates in national broadcast media while in Flanders Brabantian dialect dominates in that capacity, making them in flex unofficial prestige dialects in their respective countries. Outside the Netherlands and Belgium, the dialect spoken in and around the german town of Kleve ( South Guelderish ) is historically and genetically a gloomy Franconian variety show. In North-Western France, the area around Calais was historically Dutch-speaking ( West Flemish ), of which an estimated 20,000 are day by day speakers. The cities of Dunkirk, Gravelines and Bourbourg merely became predominantly French-speaking by the end of the nineteenth hundred. In the countryside, until World War I, many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch, and the Catholic Church continued to preach and teach the catechism in Dutch in many parishes. [ 62 ] During the second half of the nineteenth century, Dutch was banned from all levels of education by both Prussia and France and lost most of its functions as a cultural lyric. In both Germany and France, the dutch standard lyric is largely lacking, and speakers of these dutch dialects will use german or french in casual actor’s line. dutch is not afford legal status in France or Germany, either by the cardinal or regional public authorities, and cognition of the linguistic process is declining among younger generations. [ 63 ] As a extraneous lyric, Dutch is chiefly taught in primary and secondary schools in areas adjacent to the Netherlands and Flanders. In French-speaking Belgium, over 300,000 pupils are enrolled in Dutch courses, followed by over 23,000 in the german states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, and about 7,000 in the french region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais ( of which 4,550 are in primary school ). [ 64 ] At an academic degree, the largest number of faculties of neerlandistiek can be found in Germany ( 30 universities ), followed by France ( 20 universities ) and the United Kingdom ( 5 universities ). [ 64 ] [ 65 ]
Asia and Australasia [edit ]
asia [edit ]
Despite the dutch bearing in Indonesia for about 350 years, as the Asian bulk of the Dutch East Indies, the dutch language has no official condition there [ 66 ] and the small minority that can speak the speech fluently are either train members of the oldest genesis, or employed in the legal profession, [ 67 ] as certain police codes are even only available in Dutch. [ 68 ] Dutch is taught in assorted educational centres in Indonesia, the most important of which is the Erasmus Language Centre ( ETC ) in Jakarta. Each year, some 1,500 to 2,000 students take dutch courses there. [ 69 ] In sum, several thousand Indonesians study Dutch as a foreign language. [ 70 ] Owing to centuries of Dutch rule in Indonesia, many honest-to-god documents are written in Dutch. many universities therefore include Dutch as a reservoir terminology, chiefly for law and history students. [ 71 ] In Indonesia this involves about 35,000 students. [ 58 ] Unlike other european nations, the Dutch chose not to follow a policy of terminology expansion amongst the autochthonal peoples of their colonies. [ 72 ] In the last one-fourth of the nineteenth hundred, however, a local elite gained proficiency in Dutch sol as to meet the needs of expanding bureaucracy and clientele. [ 73 ] Nevertheless, the dutch government remained loath to teach Dutch on a large scale for fear of destabilising the colony. dutch, the linguistic process of power, was supposed to remain in the hands of the leading elite. [ 73 ] After independence, Dutch was dropped as an official terminology and replaced by Malay. Yet the indonesian linguistic process inherited many words from dutch : words for casual life ampere well as scientific and technological terms. [ 74 ] One scholar argues that 20 % of indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words, many of which are transliterated to reflect phonetic pronunciation e.g. kantoor “ function ” in Indonesian is kantor, while bus “ bus ” becomes bis. In addition, many indonesian words are calques of Dutch ; for example, rumah sakit “ hospital ” is calqued on the dutch ziekenhuis ( literally “ sickhouse ” ), kebun binatang “ menagerie ” on dierentuin ( literally “ animal garden ” ), undang-undang dasar “ united states constitution ” from grondwet ( literally “ background law ” ). These account for some of the differences in vocabulary between indonesian and Malay .
australasia [edit ]
After the contract of independence of Indonesia, Western New Guinea, the “ wild east ” of the Dutch East Indies, remained a dutch colony until 1962, known as Netherlands New Guinea. [ 76 ] Despite elongated Dutch presence, the dutch speech is not spoken by many Papuans, the colony having been ceded to Indonesia in 1963. Dutch-speaking immigrant communities can besides be found in Australia and New Zealand. The 2011 australian census showed 37,248 people speaking dutch at dwelling. [ 77 ] At the 2006 New Zealand census, 26,982 people, or 0.70 percentage of the total population, reported to speak Dutch to sufficient fluency that they could hold an casual conversation. [ 78 ]
america [edit ]
In contrast to the colonies in the East Indies, from the moment half of the nineteenth century onwards, the Netherlands envisaged the expansion of Dutch in its colonies in the West Indies. Until 1863, when slavery was abolished in the West Indies, slaves were prevent to speak Dutch, with the effect that local creoles such as Papiamento and Sranan Tongo which were based not on dutch but rather other european languages, became common in the dutch West Indies. however, as most of the people in the Colony of Surinam ( nowadays Suriname ) worked on Dutch plantations, this reinforced the function of Dutch as a mean for direct communication. [ 73 ] [ 79 ] In Suriname today, Dutch is the lone official speech, [ 80 ] and over 60 percentage of the population speaks it as a mother clapper. [ 6 ] Dutch is the obligatory average of education in schools in Suriname, flush for non-native speakers. [ 81 ] A foster twenty-four percentage of the population speaks Dutch as a moment speech. [ 82 ] Suriname gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1975 and has been an companion member of the dutch Language Union since 2004. [ 83 ] The tongue franca of Suriname, however, is Sranan Tongo, [ 84 ] spoken natively by about a fifth of the population. [ 59 ] [ n 12 ] In Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, all parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Dutch is the official linguistic process but spoken as a first gear lyric by only 7 % to 8 % of the population, [ 85 ] although most native-born people on the islands can speak the language since the education system is in dutch at some or all levels. In the United States, a now extinct dialect of Dutch, Jersey Dutch, spoken by descendants of 17th-century Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was still spoken a late as 1921. [ 86 ] other Dutch-based creole languages once spoken in the Americas include Mohawk Dutch ( in Albany, New York ), Berbice ( in Guyana ), Skepi ( in Essequibo, Guyana ) and Negerhollands ( in the United States Virgin Islands ). Pennsylvania Dutch is not a penis of the set up of dutch dialects and is less deceptively called Pennsylvania German. [ 87 ] Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the United States, spoke Dutch natively and is the only U.S. president whose first linguistic process was not English. Dutch prevailed for many generations as the dominant speech in parts of New York along the Hudson River. Another celebrated american english born in this region who spoke Dutch as a first lyric was Sojourner Truth. According to the 2000 United States census, 150,396 people spoke Dutch at home, [ 88 ] while according to the 2006 canadian census, this number reaches 160,000 dutch speakers. [ 89 ] At an academic level, 20 universities offer dutch studies in the United States. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In Canada, Dutch is the one-fourth most talk language by farmers, after English, French and German, [ 90 ] and the fifth most spoken non-official speech overall ( by 0.6 % of Canadians ). [ 91 ]
Africa [edit ]
-
0–20 %
-
20–40 %
-
40–60 %
-
60–80 %
-
80–100 %
The distribution of Afrikaans across South Africa : proportion of the population talk Afrikaans at home The largest bequest of the dutch lyric lies in South Africa, which attracted bombastic numbers of Dutch, Flemish and other northwest european farmer ( in Dutch, boer ) settlers, all of whom were cursorily assimilated. [ 92 ] The long isolation from the rest of the Dutch-speaking global made the Dutch as spoken in Southern Africa evolve into what is immediately Afrikaans. [ 93 ] In 1876, the first Afrikaans newspaper called Die Afrikaanse Patriot was published in the Cape Colony. [ 94 ] european Dutch remained the literary language [ 93 ] until the start of the 1920s, when under blackmail of Afrikaner nationalism the local anesthetic “ african ” dutch was preferred over the written, European-based standard. [ 92 ] In 1925, section 137 of the 1909 fundamental law of the Union of South Africa was amended by Act 8 of 1925, stating “ the son Dutch in article 137 … is hereby declared to include Afrikaans ”. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] The united states constitution of 1983 only listed English and Afrikaans as official languages. It is estimated that between 90 % to 95 % of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Both languages are hush largely mutually apprehensible, although this sexual intercourse can in some fields ( such as vocabulary, spelling and grammar ) be asymmetrical, as it is easier for dutch speakers to understand written Afrikaans than it is for Afrikaans speakers to understand written Dutch. [ 99 ] Afrikaans is grammatically far less complex than dutch, and vocabulary items are broadly altered in a distinctly pattern manner, e.g. vogel becomes voël ( “ boo ” ) and regen becomes reën ( “ rain ” ). [ 100 ] In South Africa, the number of students following dutch at university is unmanageable to estimate, since the academician analyze of Afrikaans inescapably includes the study of Dutch. [ 58 ] elsewhere in the world, the number of people learning Dutch is relatively small .
Afrikaans is the third largest speech of South Africa in terms of native speakers ( ~13.5 % ), [ 101 ] of whom 53 % are Coloureds and 42.4 % Whites. [ 102 ] In 1996, 40 percentage of South Africans reported to know Afrikaans at least at a very basic level of communication. [ 103 ] It is the tongue franca in Namibia, [ 92 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] where it is spoken natively in 11 percentage of households. [ 106 ] In total, Afrikaans is the inaugural lyric in South Africa alone of about 7.1 million people [ 101 ] and is estimated to be a second terminology for at least 10 million people worldwide, [ 107 ] compared to over 23 million [ 6 ] and 5 million respectively, for Dutch. [ 2 ] The dutch colonial bearing elsewhere in Africa, notably Dutch Gold Coast, was besides ephemeron not to be wiped out by prevailing colonizing european successors. belgian colonial presence in Congo and Rwanda-Urundi ( Burundi and Rwanda, held under League of Nations mandate and late a UN reliance district ) left little Dutch ( Flemish ) bequest, as French was the main colonial speech. [ 108 ]
phonology [edit ]
Spoken Dutch, with a Netherlands accent For further details on different realisations of phonemes, dialectal differences and case words, see the full article at Dutch phonology .
Consonants [edit ]
Unlike early Germanic languages, Dutch has no phonological aspiration of consonants. [ 109 ] Like most early Germanic languages, the Dutch accordant system did not undergo the high german consonant shift and has a syllable structure that allows fairly-complex consonant clusters. Dutch besides retains full moon use of the velar fricatives of Proto-Germanic that were lost or modified in many other Germanic languages. dutch has final-obstruent devoice. At the end of a son, voicing distinction is neutralised and all obstruents are pronounce breathed. For example, Dutch goede ( ̇ ‘ good ’ ) is /ˈɣudə/ but the refer form goed is /ɣut/. Dutch shares this final-obstruent devoice with German ( the Dutch noun goud is pronounced [ ɣɑut ], the adjective gouden is pronounced [ ɣɑudə ( n ) ], like the german noun Gold, pronounced [ ɡɔlt ], adjectival golden, pronounced [ ɡɔldn ] vs English gold and golden, both pronounced with [ vitamin d ]. ) Voicing of pre-vocalic initial disenfranchised alveolar consonant fricatives occurs although less in dutch than in German ( Dutch zeven, german sieben with [ z ] versus English seven and low german seven with [ s ] ), and besides the shift /θ/ → /d/. Dutch shares only with low german the development of /xs/ → /ss/ ( Dutch vossen, ossen and moo german Vösse, Ossen versus german Füchse, Ochsen and english foxes, oxen ), and besides the development of /ft/ → /xt/ though it is far more common in Dutch ( Dutch zacht and moo german sacht versus german sanft and English soft, but Dutch kracht versus german Kraft and English craft ) .
Notes :
- [ ʔ ] is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after /a/ and /ə/ and often also at the beginning of a word.
- The realization of /r/ phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area. Common realisations are an alveolar trill [ gas constant ], alveolar tap [ ɾ ], uvular trill [ ʀ ], voiced uvular fricative [ ʁ ], and alveolar approximant [ ɹ ]
.
- The realization of /ʋ/ also varies somewhat by area and speaker. The main realisation is a labiodental approximant [ ʋ ], but some speakers, particularly in the south, use a bilabial approximant [ β̞ ] or a labiovelar approximant [ tungsten ].
- The lateral /l/ is slightly velarized postvocalically in most dialects, particularly in the north.[110]
- /x/ and /ɣ/ may be true velars [ x ] and [ ɣ ], uvular [ χ ] and [ ʁ ] or palatal [ ç ] and [ ʝ ]. The more palatal realisations are common in southern areas, and uvulars are common in the north.
- Some northern dialects have a tendency to devoice all fricatives, regardless of environment, which is particularly common with /ɣ/ but can affect others as well.
- /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually occur in borrowed words, like show and bagage (‘baggage’), but may occur if /s/ and /z/ are palatalised.
- /ɡ/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in borrowed words, like garçon.
Vowels [edit ]
Like English, Dutch did not develop i-mutation as a morphologic marker and shares with most other Germanic languages the lengthen of short vowels in stress open syllables, which has led to contrastive vowel length being used as a geomorphologic marker. Dutch has an extensive vowel stock. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, battlefront unrounded and front rounded. They are besides traditionally distinguished by length or tension. Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive feature of speech in Dutch phonology because it normally occurs with changes in vowel choice. One sport or the early may be considered excess, and some phonemic analyses prefer to treat it as an resistance of tension. however, even if it is not considered part of the phonemic enemy, the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonetically longer than their short counterparts. The changes in vowel quality are besides not always the same in all dialects, some of which may be little remainder at all, with length remaining the elementary distinguish feature. Although all older words pair vowel duration with a change in vowel quality, new loanwords have reintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. Compare zonne(n) [ ˈzɔnə ] ( “ suns ” ) versus zone [ ˈzɔːnə ] ( “ zone ” ) versus zonen [ ˈzoːnə ( n ) ] ( “ sons ” ), or kroes [ krus ] ( “ chump ” ) versus cruise [ kruːs ] ( “ cruise ” ) .
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Notes :
- The distinction between /i y u/ and /iː yː uː/ is only slight and may be considered allophonic for most purposes. However, some recent loanwords have introduced distinctively-long /iː yː uː/, making the length distinction marginally phonemic.
- The long close-mid vowels /eː øː oː/ are realised as slightly closing diphthongs [ eɪ øʏ oʊ ] in many northern dialects.
- The long open-mid vowels /ɛː œː ɔː/ occur only in a handful of loanwords, mostly from French. In certain Belgian Dutch varieties, they may also occur as realisations of /ɛi œy au/.[110]
- The long close and close-mid vowels are often pronounced more closed or as centering diphthongs before an /r/ in the syllable coda, which may occur before coda /l/ as well.
Diphthongs [edit ]
singular to the development of Dutch is the collapse of older ol / ul / al + dental into ol + alveolar consonant, followed by voice of pre- consonantal /l/ and after a short vowel. That created the diphthong /ɑu/ : dutch goud, zout and bout corresponds with broken german Gold, Solt, Bolt ; german Gold, Salz, Balt and English gold, salt, bolt. It is the most common diphthong, along with /ɛi œy/. All three are the entirely ones normally considered alone phonemes in Dutch. The inclination for native english speakers is to pronounce Dutch names with /ɛi/ ( written as ij or ei ) as /aɪ/, ( like the English “ long one ” ), which does not normally lead to confusion for native listeners since in a number of dialects ( such as in Amsterdam [ 111 ] ), the like pronunciation is heard. In contrast, /ɑi/ and /ɔi/ are rare in Dutch. The “ long/tense ” diphthongs are indeed realised as proper diphthongs but are generally analysed phonemically as a long/tense vowel, followed by a slide /j/ or /ʋ/. All diphthongs end in a close vowel ( /i y u/ ) and are grouped hera by their first component .
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Phonotactics [edit ]
The syllable structure of Dutch is ( C ) ( C ) ( C ) V ( C ) ( C ) ( C ) ( C ). many words, as in English, begin with three consonants : straat /straːt/ ( street ). There are words that end in four consonants : herfst /ɦɛrfst/ ( fall ), ergst /ɛrxst/ ( worst ), interessantst /ɪn.tə.rɛ.sɑntst/ ( most concern ), sterkst /stɛrkst/ ( strongest ), the last three of which are superlative adjectives. The highest number of consonants in a single cluster is found in the word slechtstschrijvend /ˈslɛxtstˌsxrɛi̯vənt/ ( writing worst ), with seven consonant phonemes. angstschreeuw ( help · information ) ( scream in fear ) has six in a rowing .
Polder Dutch [edit ]
A luminary deepen in pronunciation has been occurring in younger generations in the provinces of Utrecht, North and South Holland, which has been dubbed “ Polder Dutch ” by Jan Stroop. [ 112 ] such speakers pronounce ⟨ij/ei⟩, ⟨ou/au⟩ and ⟨ui⟩, which used to be pronounced respectively as /ɛi/, /ɔu/, and /œy/, as increasingly lowered to [ artificial insemination ], [ au ], and [ ay ] respectively. In summation, the same speakers pronounce /eː/, /oː/, and /øː/ as the diphthongs [ ei ], [ ou ], and [ øy ] [ 113 ] respectively, making the change an case of a chain switch. The deepen is interesting from a sociolinguistic point of see because it has obviously happened relatively recently, in the 1970s and was pioneered by older knowing women from the upper middle classes. [ 114 ] The lowering of the diphthongs has farseeing been current in many Dutch dialects and is comparable to the English Great Vowel Shift and the diphthongisation of long high vowels in Modern High German, which had centuries earlier reached the country now found in Polder Dutch. Stroop theorizes that the turn down of open-mid to open diphthongs is a phonetically “ natural ” and inevitable development and that Dutch, after it had diphthongised the farseeing high vowels like German and English, “ should ” have lowered the diphthongs like German and English ampere well. rather, he argues that the growth has been artificially fixed in an “ average ” country by the standardization of Dutch pronunciation in the sixteenth hundred in which lowered diphthongs found in rural dialects were perceived as ugly by the educated classes and were consequently declared deficient. now, however, he thinks that the newly-affluent and autonomous women can afford to let that natural development take rate in their speech. Stroop compares the role of Polder Dutch with the urban variety of british English pronunciation called Estuary English. Among belgian and Surinamese Dutch-speakers and speakers from other regions in the Netherlands, that vowel shift is not taking topographic point .
grammar [edit ]
dutch is grammatically exchangeable to german, such as in syntax and verb morphology ( for verb morphology in English verb, Dutch and German, see teutonic faint verb and Germanic potent verb ). grammatical cases have largely become specify to pronouns and many dress phrases. Inflected forms of the articles are frequently grace surnames and place name. Standard Dutch uses three genders across natural and grammatical genders but for most non-Belgian speakers, masculine and feminine have merged to form the common sex ( with de for “ the ” ). The neuter ( which uses het ) remains clear-cut. This is exchangeable to those of most continental scandinavian tongues. Less so than English, inflectional grammar ( such as in adjectival and noun endings ) has simplified .
Verbs and tenses [edit ]
When grouped according to their conjugational class, Dutch has four main verb types : weak verb, firm verb, irregular verb and mix verbs. Weak verbs are most numerous, constituting about 60 % of all verbs. In these, the past strain and by participle are formed with a dental suffix :
- Weak verbs with past in -de
- Weak verbs with past in -te
strong verbs are the second most numerous verb group. This group is characterised by a vowel alternation of the shank in the past tense and perfect participle. Dutch distinguishes between 7 classes, comprising about all potent verbs, with some internal variants. Dutch has many ‘half strong verbs ‘ : these have a faint past tense and a strong participle or a solid past tense and a watery participle. The following table shows the vowel alternations in more detail. It besides shows the act of roots ( bare verb ) that belong to each class, variants with a prefix are excluded .
| Verb class | Verb | Present | Past | Participle | Number of roots | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | kijken | (to watch) | ɛi | kijk | e: | keek | e: | gekeken | 58 |
| 2a | bieden | (to offer) | i | bied | o: | bood | o: | geboden | 17 |
| 2b | stuiven | (to gush) | œy | stuif | o: | stoof | o: | gestoven | 23 |
| 3a | klimmen | (to climb) | ɪ | klim | ɔ | klom | ɔ | geklommen | 25 |
| 3b | zenden | (to send) | ɛ | zend | ɔ | zond | ɔ | gezonden | 18 |
| 3 + 7 | sterven | (to die) | ɛ | sterf | i | stierf | ɔ | gestorven | 6 |
| 4 | breken | (to break) | e: | breek | ɑ ~ a: | brak ~ braken | o: | gebroken | 7 |
| 4 irregular | wegen | (to weigh) | e: | weeg | o: | woog | o: | gewogen | 3 |
| 5 | geven | (to give) | e: | geef | ɑ ~ a: | gaf ~ gaven | e: | gegeven | 10 |
| 5 irregular | zitten | (to sit) | ɪ | zit | ɑ ~ a: | zat ~ zaten | e: | gezeten | 3 |
| 6 | dragen | (to carry) | a: | draag | u | droeg | a: | gedragen | 4 |
| 7 | roepen | (to call) | X | roep | i | riep | X | geroepen | 8 |
| 7 irregular | vangen | (to catch) | X | vang | ɪ | ving | X | gevangen | 3 |
| Half strong past | vragen | (to ask) | vraag | vroeg | gevraagd | 3 | |||
| Half strong perfect | bakken | (to bake) | bak | bakte | gebakken | 19 | |||
| Other | scheppen | (to create) | schep | schiep | geschapen | 5 | |||
Genders and cases [edit ]
As in English, the encase organization of Dutch and the subjunctive have largely fallen out of use, and the arrangement has generalised the dative over the accusative case for certain pronouns ( NL : me, je ; EN : me, you ; LI : mi, di vs. DE : mich/mir, dich/dir ). While standard Dutch has three grammatical genders, this has few consequences and the masculine and feminine sex are normally merged into a common sex in the Netherlands but not in Belgium ( EN : none ; NL/LI : common and neuter ; in Belgium masculine, womanly and neuter is in use ). Modern Dutch has largely lost its case organization. [ 115 ] however, certain idioms and expressions continue to include now antediluvian casing declensions. The article has just two forms, de and het, more complex than English, which has only the. The use of the older inflect form den in the dative and objective, arsenic well as use of der in the dative, is restricted to numerous set phrases, surnames and place name .
| Masculine singular | Feminine singular | Neuter singular | Plural (any gender) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | de | de | het | de |
| Genitive | van de | van de | van het | van de |
| Genitive | des | der | des | der |
In modern Dutch, the genitive articles des and der in the buttocks pipeline are normally used in idioms. early custom is typically considered archaic, poetic or stylistic. One must know whether a noun is masculine or feminine to use them correctly. In most circumstances, the preposition van, the middle line, is alternatively used, followed by the normal article de or het, and in that case it makes no remainder whether a bible is masculine or feminine. . For the idiomatic habit of the articles in the genitive, see for case :
- Masculine singular: “des duivels” (lit: “of the devil”) (common proverbial meaning: Seething with rage)
- Feminine singular: het woordenboek der Friese taal (“the dictionary of the Frisian language”)
- Neuter singular: de vrouw des huizes (“the lady of the house”)
- Plural: de voortgang der werken (“the progress of (public) works”)
In contemporary usage, the possessive font hush occurs a little more much with plurals than with singulars, as the plural article is der for all genders and no especial noun inflection must be taken account of. Der is normally used in order to avoid anadiplosis of van, e.g. het merendeel der gedichten van de auteur alternatively of het merendeel van de gedichten van de auteur ( “ the bulge of the writer ‘s poems ” ). There is besides a genitive form for the pronoun die/dat ( “ that [ one ], those [ ones ] ” ), namely diens for masculine and alter singulars ( occurrences of dier for feminine remarkable and all plurals are highly rare ). Although normally avoided in coarse manner of speaking, this form can be used alternatively of possessive pronouns to avoid confusion. compare :
- Hij vertelde over zijn zoon en zijn vrouw. – He told about his son and his (own) wife.
- Hij vertelde over zijn zoon en diens vrouw. – He told about his son and the latter’s wife.
Analogically, the relative and interrogative pronoun wie ( “ who ” ) has the possessive forms wiens and wier ( corresponding to English whose, but less frequent in use ). dutch besides has a range of fix expressions that make use of the genitive articles, which can be abbreviated using apostrophes. common examples include “ ‘s ochtends ” ( with ‘s as abbreviation of des ; “ in the dawn ” ) and desnoods ( illuminated : “ of the need ”, translated : “ if necessary ” ). The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the by 100 years : cases are now chiefly used for the pronouns, such as ik ( I ), mij, me ( me ), mijn ( my ), wie ( who ), wiens ( whose : masculine or alter singular ), wier ( whose : feminine singular ; masculine, feminine or neuter plural ). Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected ( except for the possessive of proper nouns ( names ) : -s, – ‘s or – ‘ ). In the speak terminology cases and lawsuit inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on ( probably the fifteenth century ) as in many continental West Germanic dialects. inflection of adjectives is more complicate. The adjective receives no ending with indefinite neuter nouns in curious ( as with een /ən/ ‘a/an ‘ ), and -e in all other cases. ( This was besides the encase in Middle English, as in “ a good e world ”. ) Fiets belongs to the masculine/feminine category, while water and huis are alter .
| Masculine singular or feminine singular | Neuter singular | Plural (any gender) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Definite (with definite article or pronoun) |
de mooie fiets (“the beautiful bicycle”) onze mooie fiets (“our beautiful bicycle”) deze mooie fiets (“this beautiful bicycle”) |
het mooie huis (“the beautiful house”) ons mooie huis (“our beautiful house”) dit mooie huis (“this beautiful house”) |
de mooie fietsen (“the beautiful bicycles”) de mooie huizen (“the beautiful houses”) onze mooie fietsen (“our beautiful bicycles”) deze mooie huizen (“these beautiful houses”) |
| Indefinite (with indefinite article or no article and no pronoun) |
een mooie fiets (“a beautiful bicycle”) koude soep (“cold soup”) |
een mooi huis (“a beautiful house”) koud water (“cold water”) |
mooie fietsen (“beautiful bicycles”) mooie huizen (“beautiful houses”) |
An adjective has no e if it is in the predicative : De soep is koud. More complex inflection is however found in certain lexicalized expressions like de heer des huizes ( literally, “ the man of the house ” ), etc. These are normally remnants of cases ( in this example, the possessive shell which is hush used in german, californium. Der Herr des Hauses ) and other inflections no long in general use nowadays. In such lexicalized expressions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found besides, e.g. in het jaar des Heren ( Anno Domini ), where -en is actually the possessive ending of the decrepit noun. Similarly in some topographic point names : ’s-Gravenbrakel, ’s-Hertogenbosch, etc. ( with weak genitives of graaf “ count ”, hertog “ duke ” ). besides in this case, german retains this feature .
Word club [edit ]
Dutch shares much of its word order with german. Dutch exhibits subject–object–verb word regulate, but in independent clauses the conjugate verb is moved into the second base position in what is known as verb second or V2 give voice order. This makes Dutch give voice order about identical to that of german, but often unlike from English, which has subject–verb–object parole order and has since lost the V2 son order that existed in Old English. [ 116 ] An model conviction used in some dutch language courses and textbooks is “ Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is “, which translates into English parole for discussion as “ I can my pen not find because it far too dark is “, but in standard English password order would be written “ I cannot find my pen because it is far too dark “. If the sentence is split into a independent and subclause and the verb highlighted, the logic behind the password order can be seen. chief clause : “ Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden “ Verbs are placed in the concluding position, but the conjugate verb, in this shell “ kan ” ( can ), is made the second component of the article. Subclause : “ omdat het veel te donker is “ The verb or verb constantly go in the final examination position. In an interrogative mood main article the usual word order is : conjugated verb followed by subject ; other verb in final side :
- “Kun jij je pen niet vinden?” (literally “Can you your pen not find?“) “Can’t you find your pen?“
In the dutch equivalent of a wh-question the give voice order is : interrogative pronoun ( or formulation ) + conjugated verb + subject ; other verb in final examination position :
- “Waarom kun jij je pen niet vinden?” (“Why can you your pen not find?“) “Why can’t you find your pen?“
In a tag interrogate the word order is the same as in a declarative article :
- “Jij kunt je pen niet vinden?” (“You can your pen not find?“) “You can’t find your pen?“
A subordinate clause does not change its son club :
- “Kun jij je pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is?” (“Can you your pen not find because it far too dark is?“) “Can you not find your pen because it’s far too dark?“
Diminutives [edit ]
In Dutch, the bantam is used extensively. The nuances of meaning expressed by the diminutive are a distinctive aspect of Dutch, and can be unmanageable for non-native speakers to master. It is very generative [ 117 ] : 61 and formed by adding one of the suffixes to the noun in interview, depending on the latter ‘s phonological ending :
- -je for ending in -b, -c, -d, -t, -f, -g, -ch, -k, -p, -v, -x, -z or -s: neef → neefje (male cousin, nephew)
- -pje for ending in -m: boom (tree) → boompje
- -kje for ending in -ing if the preceding syllable carries the stress: koning (king) → koninkje (the ‘ng’-sound transforms into ‘nk’); but ring → ringetje (ring), and vondeling → vondelingetje (foundling) without this stress pattern
- -tje for ending in -h, -j, -l, -n, -r, -w, or a vowel other than -y: zoen → zoentje (kiss). A single open vowel is doubled when adding “-tje” would change the pronunciation: auto → autootje (car).
- -′tje for ending in -y and for abbreviations: baby → baby’tje, cd → cd’tje, A4 → A4’tje
- -etje for ending in -b, -l, -n, -ng or -r preceded by a “short” (lax) vowel: bal → balletje (ball). Final consonant is doubled (except for -ng) to preserve the vowel’s shortness.
The diminutive suffixes -ke ( from which -tje has derived by palatalization ), -eke, -ske, -ie ( only for words ending -ch, -k, -p, or -s ), -kie ( rather of -kje ), and -pie ( alternatively of -pje ) are used in southerly dialects, and the forms ending on -ie american samoa well in northern urban dialects. Some of these form separate of expressions that became standard lyric, like een makkie, from gaea mak = ease ). The noun joch ( young boy ) has, exceptionally, only the bantam imprint jochie, besides in standard Dutch. The form -ke is besides found in many women ‘s given names : Janneke, Marieke, Marijke, Mieke, Meike etc. In Dutch, the bantam is not restricted to nouns, but can be applied to numerals ( met z’n tweetjes, “ the two of us ” ), pronouns ( onderonsje, “ tête-à-tête ” ), verbal particles ( moetje, “ shotgun marriage ” ), and even prepositions ( toetje, “ dessert ” ). [ 117 ] : 64–65 Adjectives and adverbs normally take diminutive forms ; the erstwhile take a diminutive ending and thus serve as nouns, while the latter remain adverb and constantly have the diminutive with the -s appended, e.g. adjective : groen ( “ green ” ) → noun : groen tje ( “ cub ” ) ; adverb : even ( “ a while ” ) → adverb : even tjes ( “ a little while ” ). Some nouns have two different diminutives, each with a different mean : bloem ( flower ) → bloem pje ( light. “ small flower ” ), but bloem etje ( ignite. besides “ little flower ”, meaning bouquet ). A few nouns exist entirely in a diminutive phase, e.g. zeepaardje ( seahorse ), while many, e.g. meisje ( girl ), primitively a diminutive of meid ( maid ), have acquired a meaning freelancer of their non-diminutive forms. A bantam can sometimes be added to an uncountable noun to refer to a single share : ijs ( ice, ice cream ) → ijsje ( ice cream treat, cone of ice cream ), bier ( beer ) → biertje. Some diminutive forms only exist in the plural, e.g. kleertjes ( clothing ). When used to refer to time, the Dutch diminutive form can indicate whether the person in doubt found it pleasant or not : een uur tje kletsen ( chatting for a “little” hour. ) The bantam can, however, besides be used pejoratively : Hij was weer eens het “mannetje”. ( He acted as if he was the “little” man. ) All diminutives ( even lexicalised ones like “ meisje ” (girl) ) have neuter sex and take alter concords : “ dit kleine meisje ”, not “ deze kleine meisje ” .
Pronouns and determiners [edit ]
There are two series of personal pronouns, subject and objects pronouns. The forms on the right-hand sides within each column are the unemphatic forms ; those not normally written are given in brackets. alone ons and u do not have an unemphatic form. The eminence between emphatic and unemphatic pronoun is very important in Dutch. [ 117 ] : 67 emphatic pronouns in English use the automatic pronoun form, but are used to emphasize the capable, not to indicate a direct or indirect object. For model, “ I gave ( to ) myself the money ” is reflexive pronoun but “ I myself gave the money ( to person else ) “ is emphatic .
| person | subject | object |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ik – (‘k) | mij – me |
| 2nd person singular, informal | jij – je | jou – je |
| 2nd person singular, formal | u | u |
| 3rd person singular, masculine | hij – (ie) | hem – (‘m) |
| 3rd person singular, feminine | zij – ze | haar – (‘r, d’r) |
| 3rd person singular, neuter | het – (‘t) | het – (‘t) |
| 1st person plural | wij – we | ons |
| 2nd person plural, informal | jullie – je | jullie – je |
| 2nd person plural, formal | u | u |
| 3rd person plural, for a person | zij – ze | hun, hen – ze |
| 3rd person plural, for an object | zij – ze | die – ze |
Like English, Dutch has generalised the dative over the accusative font for all pronouns, e.g. NL ‘me ‘, ‘je ‘, EN ‘me ‘, ‘you ‘, vs. DE ‘mich’/’mir ‘ ‘dich’/’dir ‘. There is one exception : the standard speech prescribes that in the third person plural, hen is to be used for the lead object, and hun for the collateral object. This distinction was artificially introduced in the seventeenth century by grammarians, and is largely ignored in address linguistic process and not well sympathize by dutch speakers. consequently, the third base person plural forms hun and hen are interchangeable in normal custom, with hun being more park. The shared unstressed shape ze is besides frequently used as both lead and collateral objects and is a useful avoidance strategy when people are diffident which kind to use. [ 118 ] dutch shares besides with English the presence of h- pronouns, e.g. NL hij, hem, haar, hen, hun and EN he, him, her vs. DE er, ihn, ihr, ihnen .
Compounds [edit ]
Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms noun compounds, where the first noun modifies the class given by the moment ( hondenhok = doghouse ). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are frequently written in open form with separating spaces, Dutch ( like the early Germanic languages ) either uses the close form without spaces ( boomhut = tree house ) or inserts a hyphen ( VVD-coryfee = outstanding member of the VVD, a political party ). Like german, Dutch allows randomly long compounds, but the longer they get, the less frequent they tend to be. The longest serious entrance in the Van Dale dictionary is ( help oneself · information ) ( ceasefire negotiation ). Leafing through the articles of association ( Statuten ) one may come across a 30-letter ( help · information ) ( authority of representation ). An even longer son cropping up in official documents is ziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschappij ( health insurance company ) though the short zorgverzekeraar ( health insurance company ) is more coarse. Notwithstanding official spell rules, some Dutch-speaking people, like some Scandinavians and german speakers, nowadays tend to write the parts of a compound individually, a practice sometimes dubbed de Engelse ziekte ( the English disease ). [ 119 ]
vocabulary [edit ]
Dutch vocabulary is predominantly Germanic in beginning, with loanwords accounting for 20 %. [ 120 ] The chief extraneous influence on Dutch vocabulary since the twelfth century and culminate in the french time period has been french and ( northern ) Oïl languages, accounting for an calculate 6.8 % of all words, or more than a third base of all loanwords. Latin, which was spoken in the southern Low Countries for centuries and then played a major character as the lyric of skill and religion, follows with 6.1 %. high german and humble German were influential until the mid-19th century and account for 2.7 %, but they are largely unrecognizable since many have been “ Dutchified ” : german Fremdling → Dutch vreemdeling. dutch has borrowed words from English since the mid-19th hundred, as a consequence of the increasing power and influence of Britain and the United States. english loanwords are about 1.5 %, but continue to increase. [ 121 ] Many English loanwords become less visible all over time as they are either gradually replaced by calques ( skyscraper became Dutch wolkenkrabber ) or neologism ( bucket list became loodjeslijst ). conversely, Dutch contributed many loanwords to English, accounting for 1.3 % of its vocabulary. [ 122 ] The main Dutch dictionary is the Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal, which contains some 268,826 headwords. [ 123 ] In the field of linguistics, the 45,000-page Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is besides widely used. That scholarly enterprise took 147 years to complete and contains all recorded Dutch words from the early Middle Ages forth .
Spelling and writing system [edit ]
lijnbus (“line/route” + “bus”; the tram lane also serves as bus road). dutch uses the digraph IJ as a individual letter and it can be seen in several variations. here, a marking suppose ( “ line/route ” + “ busbar ” ; the tram lane besides serves as bus road ). dutch is written using the Latin script. dutch uses one extra character beyond the criterion alphabet, the digraph IJ. It has a relatively high proportion of duplicate letters, both vowels and consonants, due to the formation of compound words and besides to the spelling devices for distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the dutch linguistic process. An exercise of five consecutive doubled letters is the son voorraaddoos ( food storage container ). The umlaut ( dutch : trema ) is used to mark vowels that are pronounced individually when involving a pre- or suffix, and a hyphen is used when the trouble occurs in compound words. For exemplar ; “ be ïnvloed ” ( influenced ), de zee ën ( the ocean ) but zee-eend ( scoter ; litt : ocean duck ). generally, early diacritic marks occur only in loanwords. however, the acute stress can besides be used for vehemence or to differentiate between two forms, and its most common manipulation is to differentiate between the indefinite article ‘een ‘ /ən/ ( a, an ) and the numeral ‘één ‘ /e : n/ ( one ). Since the 1980s, the dutch Language Union has been given the mandate to review and make recommendations on the official spell of Dutch. Spelling reforms undertaken by the union occurred in 1995 and 2005. In the Netherlands, the official spell is presently given legal footing by the Spelling Act of 15 September 2005. [ n 13 ] [ n 14 ] The Spelling Act gives the Committee of Ministers of the dutch Language Union the authority to determine the spell of dutch by ministerial decision. In addition, the law requires that this spell be followed “ at the governmental bodies, at educational institutions funded from the public purse, ampere well as at the examination for which legal requirements have been established ”. In other cases, it is recommended, but it is not compulsory to follow the official spell. The Decree on the Spelling Regulations 2005 of 2006 contains the annex spell rules decided by the Committee of Ministers on 25 April 2005. [ normality 15 ] [ n 16 ] In Flanders, the like spell rules are presently applied by the Decree of the flemish Government Establishing the Rules of the Official Spelling and Grammar of the dutch speech of 30 June 2006. [ north 17 ] The Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal, more normally known as “ het groene boekje “ ( i.e. “ the green booklet ”, because of its tinge ), is the authoritative orthographic parole list ( without definitions ) of the dutch Language Union ; a version with definitions can be had as Het Groene Woordenboek ; both are published by Sdu .
dutch expressions [edit ]
| Dutch expression | Literal translation | Further explanation | Related expressions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oost west, thuis best[124] | East, West, home is best | Historically, the Dutch are known traders and travelers. In maintaining this tradition, however, the Dutch people still believe “home is best”; something like the English saying “Home sweet home”. | Eigen haard is goud waard (‘Your own fireplace is worth gold’), Gezelligheid (‘Cosiness’) |
See besides [edit ]
Notes [edit ]
Citations [edit ]
General references [edit ]
Read more: David Prowse
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