Wikipedia

area in North America
This article is about the union republic in North America. For early uses, see Mexico ( disambiguation ) Coordinates :
Mexico, [ a ] [ b-complex vitamin ] officially the United Mexican States, [ hundred ] is a nation in the southerly share of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States ; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean ; to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea ; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. [ 11 ] Mexico covers 1,972,550 straight kilometers ( 761,610 sq michigan ), [ 12 ] making it the universe ‘s 13th-largest area by area ; with approximately 126,014,024 inhabitants, [ 1 ] it is the 10th-most-populous area and has the most Spanish-speakers. Mexico is organized as a confederation comprising 31 states and Mexico City, [ 13 ] its capital and largest city. other major urban areas include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and León. [ 14 ]

pre-columbian Mexico traces its origins to 8,000 BC and is identified as one of the six cradles of civilization ; [ 15 ] it was home to many advance mesoamerican civilizations, most notably the Maya and the Aztecs. In 1521, the spanish Empire conquered and colonized the area from its root in Mexico City, establishing the colony of New Spain. The Catholic Church played an important function in spreading Christianity and the spanish lyric, while besides preserving some autochthonal elements. [ 16 ] Native populations were subjugated and heavily exploited to mine rich deposits of valued metals, which contributed to Spain ‘s status as a major earth exponent for the following three centuries, [ 17 ] and to a massive inflow of wealth and a price revolution in Western Europe. [ 18 ] Over prison term, a distinct Mexican identity formed, based on a fusion of european and autochthonal customs ; this contributed to the successful Mexican War of Independence against Spain in 1821. [ 19 ] Mexico ‘s early history as a nation department of state was marked by political and socioeconomic agitation. The Texas Revolution and the Mexican–American War in the mid nineteenth century led to huge territorial losses to the United States. liberal reforms were enshrined in the constitution of 1857, which sought to integrate autochthonal communities and curtail the power of the church and the military. This triggered an internal war of Reform and treatment by France, in which conservatives installed Maximilian Habsburg as emperor against the republican immunity led by Benito Juárez. The last decades of the nineteenth hundred were marked by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, who sought to modernize Mexico and restore order. [ 19 ] The Porfiriato earned run average ended in 1910 with the decade-long Mexican civil war, which killed approximately 10 % of the population and after which the victorious Constitutionalist cabal drafted a new 1917 Constitution, which remains in effect to this day. The revolutionist generals ruled as a succession of presidents until the character assassination of Alvaro Obregón in 1928. This led to the formation of the Institutional Revolutionary Party the take after class, which governed Mexico until 2000. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Mexico is a develop state, ranking 74th on the Human Development Index, but has the worldly concern ‘s 15th-largest economy by noun phrase GDP and the 11th-largest by PPP, with the United States being its largest economic partner. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Its large economy and population, ball-shaped cultural charm, and steady democratization make Mexico a regional and middle baron ; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] it is often identified as an emerging might but is considered a newly industrialized state by respective analysts. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] however, the state continues to struggle with social inequality, poverty and extensive crime ; it ranks ailing on the Global Peace Index, [ 35 ] due in boastfully part to ongoing dispute between the government and drug traffic syndicates that led to over 120,000 deaths since 2006. [ 36 ] Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the worldly concern for the total of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ] It is besides one of the world ‘s 17 megadiverse countries, ranking fifth in natural biodiversity. [ 40 ] Mexico ‘s rich cultural and biological inheritance, angstrom well as change climate and geography, makes it a major tourist destination : as of 2018, it was the sixth most-visited area in the world, with 39 million international arrivals. [ 41 ] Mexico is a extremity of United Nations, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ), the World Trade Organization ( WTO ), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the Organization of American States, Community of latin american english and caribbean States, and the Organization of Ibero-American States .

etymology

Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely the Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the Mexica. The terms are plainly linked ; it is generally believed that the place name for the valley was the origin of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance, but it may have been the other way around. [ 42 ] In the colonial earned run average, when Mexico was called New Spain, this central area became the Intendency of Mexico, during the eighteenth-century reorganization of the empire, the Bourbon Reforms. After the colony achieved independence from the spanish empire in 1821, said territory came to be known as the State of Mexico, with the new country being named after its capital : Mexico City, which itself was founded in 1524 on the site of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The official appoint of the nation has changed as the kind of government has changed. The resolution of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the Congress of Anáhuac called the territory América Septentrional ( Northern America ) ; the 1821 plan of Iguala besides used América Septentrional. On two occasions ( 1821–1823 and 1863–1867 ), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano ( Mexican Empire ). All three federal constitutions ( 1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution ) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos [ 43 ] —or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos, [ 44 ] all of which have been translated as “ United Mexican States ”. The idiom República Mexicana, “ mexican Republic ”, was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws. [ 45 ]

history

autochthonal civilizations

The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of gem tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago. Mexico is the site of the domestication of gamboge, tomato, and beans, which produced an agrarian excess. This enabled the transition from paleo-american hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC. [ 47 ] In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation and cultural traits such as a fabulous and religious complex, and a vigesimal ( base 20 ) numeral system, were diffused from the mexican cultures to the pillow of the mesoamerican culture area. [ 48 ] In this time period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an craftsman class, and developing into chiefdoms. The most mighty rulers had religious and political power, organizing the construction of big ceremonial centers. [ 49 ]
cultivation of corn, shown in the Florentine Codex ( 1576 ) drawn by an autochthonal scribe, with text in Nahuatl on this pagination The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into early formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative period saw the ranch of discrete religious and symbolic traditions, a well as aesthetic and architectural complexes. [ 50 ] The formative-era of Mesoamerica is considered one of the six freelancer cradles of civilization. [ 51 ] In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively. During this period the beginning on-key Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The mesoamerican writing custom reached its stature in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script. The earliest written histories date from this era. The custom of write was crucial after the spanish seduction in 1521. [ 52 ] In Central Mexico, the acme of the classic period saw the dominance of Teotihuacán, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area a good as north. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-columbian Americas. [ 53 ] After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between respective authoritative political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages .
1945 mural by Diego Rivera depicting the view from the Tlatelolco markets into Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the largest city in the america at the time During the early post-classic earned run average ( ca. 1000–1519 CE ), Central Mexico was dominated by the toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya sphere had crucial centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Toward the end of the post-Classic period, the Mexica established authority, establishing a political and economic conglomerate based in the city of Tenochtitlan ( advanced Mexico City ), extending from cardinal Mexico to the border with Guatemala. [ 54 ] Alexander von Humboldt popularized the mod usage of “ aztec “ as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, the Triple Alliance. [ 55 ] In 1843, with the issue of the cultivate of William H. Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century mexican scholars who considered it a way to distinguish contemporary Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This use has been the subject of debate since the former twentieth century. [ 56 ] The Aztec empire was an cozy or hegemonic conglomerate because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquer territories ; it was satisfied with the requital of tributes from them. It was a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected ; for example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire was demonstrated by their restoration of local rulers to their former put after their city state was conquered. The Aztec did not interfere in local anesthetic affairs, a long as the tributes were paid. [ 57 ] The Aztec of Central Mexico built a conducive empire covering most of cardinal Mexico. [ 58 ] The Aztec were noted for practicing human sacrifice on a big scale. Along with this drill, they avoided killing enemies on the battlefield. Their war casualty rate was far lower than that of their spanish counterparts, whose chief objective was immediate slaughter during struggle. [ 59 ] This distinct Mesoamerican cultural custom of human sacrifice ended with the gradually spanish seduction in the sixteenth hundred. Over the following centuries many other Mexican autochthonal cultures were conquered and gradually subjected to Spanish colonial predominate. [ 60 ]

Conquest of the Aztec Empire ( 1519–1521 )

Although the spanish had established colonies in the Caribbean start in 1493, it was not until the second decade of the sixteenth century that they began exploring the coast of Mexico. The spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The natives kept “ recur : Colua, Colua, and Mexico, Mexico, but we [ explorers ] did not know what Colua or Mexico mean ”, until encountering Montezuma ‘s governor at the mouth of the Rio de las Banderas. [ 61 ] : 33–36 The spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés landed on the Gulf Coast and founded the spanish city of Veracruz. Around 500 conquistadores, along with horses, cannons, swords, and long guns gave the spanish some technological advantages over autochthonal warriors, but key to the spanish victory was making strategic alliances with disgruntle autochthonal city-states ( altepetl ) who supplied the Spaniards and fought with them against the aztec Triple Alliance. besides important to the spanish victory was Cortés ‘s cultural interpreter, Malinche, a Nahua charwoman enslaved in the Maya area whom the spanish acquired as a giving. She promptly learned spanish and gave strategic propose about how to deal with both autochthonal allies and autochthonal foes. [ 62 ] The unbeaten city state of Tlaxcala allied with the spanish against their enemies, the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan. The spanish gained other autochthonal allies, who besides joined in the war for their own reasons. We know so much about the conquest because it is among the best attested events in earth history from multiple points of horizon. There are accounts by the spanish drawing card Cortés [ 63 ] and multiple early spanish participants, including Bernal Díaz del Castillo. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] There are autochthonal accounts in spanish, Nahuatl, and graphic narratives by allies of the spanish, most prominently the Tlaxcalans, adenine well as Texcocans [ 66 ] and Huejotzincans, and the defeated Mexican themselves, recorded in the last book of Bernardino de Sahagún ‘s General History of the Things of New Spain. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ]
Smallpox depicted by an indigenous artist in the 1556 Florentine Codex in its account of the conquest of Mexico from the point of view of the defeated Mexica When the Spaniards arrived, the ruler of the Aztec empire was Moctezuma II, who after a delay allowed the spanish to proceed inland to Tenochtitlan. The spanish captured him, holding him hostage. He died while in their detention and the spanish retreated from Tenochtitlan in great disorder. His successor and brother Cuitláhuac took control of the Aztec conglomerate, but was among the first to fall from the first smallpox epidemic in the sphere a short time late. [ 70 ] unintentionally introduced by spanish conquerors, among whom smallpox, measles, and early catching diseases were endemic, epidemics of Old World infectious diseases ravaged Mesoamerica starting in the 1520s. The claim act of deaths is disputed, but decidedly more than 3 million natives who had no immunity. [ 71 ] early sources, however, mentioned that the death toll of the Aztecs might have reached 15 million ( out of a population of less than 30 million ) although such a high phone number conflicts with the 350,000 Aztecs who ruled an conglomerate of 5 million or 10 million. [ 72 ] badly weakened, the Aztec empire was well defeated by Cortés and his forces on his irregular return with the avail of submit of Tlaxcala whose population estimate was 300,000. [ 73 ] The native population declined 80–90 % by 1600 to 1–2.5 million. Any population estimate of pre-columbian Mexico is bound to be a guess but 8–12 million is often suggested for the area encompassed by the modern nation. The territory became part of the spanish Empire under the name of New Spain in 1535. [ 74 ] Mexico City was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico developed during the 300-year colonial period from 1521 to independence in 1821. [ 75 ]

viceroyalty of New Spain ( 1521–1821 )

The 1521 capture Tenochtitlan and immediate initiation of the spanish capital Mexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial earned run average during which Mexico was known as Nueva España ( New Spain ). The Kingdom of New Spain was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had granted sweep powers to the spanish crown, with the provision that the crown spread Christianity in its newfangled kingdom. In 1524, King Charles I created the Council of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power its oversea territories ; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, the Real Audiencia, and then in 1535 created the viceroyalty. The viceroy was highest official of the State. In the religious sector, the diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to the Archdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, overseeing Roman Catholic clergy. castilian spanish was the lyric of rulers. The Catholic faith the only one permitted, with non-Catholics ( Jews and Protestants ) and Catholics ( excluding Indians ) holding irregular views being submit to the Mexican Inquisition, established in 1571. [ 76 ] In the first half-century of spanish rule, a net of spanish cities was created, sometimes on pre-columbian sites. The capital Mexico City was and remains the premier city. Cities and towns were hubs of civil officials, ecclesiastics, business, spanish elites, and mixed-race and autochthonal artisans and workers. When deposits of silver were discovered in sparsely populate northern Mexico, far from the dense populations of central Mexico, the spanish secured the region against fiercely immune autochthonal Chichimecas. The viceroyalty at its greatest extent included the territories of modern Mexico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, and the western United States. The Viceregal capital Mexico City besides administrated the spanish West Indies ( the Caribbean ), the spanish East Indies ( that is, the Philippines ), and spanish Florida. In 1819, the Spain signed the Adams-Onís Treaty with the United States, setting New Spain ‘s northern limit. [ 77 ]
viceroyalty of New Spain following the sign of the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty The population of Mexico was overwhelmingly autochthonal and rural during the entire colonial period and beyond, despite the massive decrease in their numbers due to epidemic diseases. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and others were introduced by Europeans and African slaves, particularly in the sixteenth century. The autochthonal population stabilized around one to one and a half million individuals in the seventeenth century from the most normally accepted five to thirty million pre-contact population. [ 78 ] During the three hundred years of the colonial earned run average, Mexico received between 400,000 and 500,000 Europeans, [ 79 ] between 200,000 and 250,000 african slaves. [ 80 ] and between 40,000 and 120,000 Asians. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] The first census in Mexico ( then known as New Spain ) that included an ethnic classification was the 1793 census. besides known as the Revillagigedo census. Most of its master datasets have reportedly been lost, thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had entree to the census data and used it as character for their works such as german scientist Alexander von Humboldt. Europeans ranged from 18 % to 22 % of New Spain ‘s population, Mestizos from 21 % to 25 %, Indians from 51 % to 61 % and Africans were between 6,000 and 10,000. The total population ranged from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded that the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were flush, while the share of the autochthonal population decreased at a pace of 13 % –17 % per century, by and large due to the latter having higher mortality rates from live in outside locations and being in constant war with the colonists. [ 83 ] Independent-era Mexico eliminated the legal footing of the Colonial caste system which led to ejection of racial classification in the censuses to come .
colonial police with spanish roots was introduced and attached to native customs creating a hierarchy between local anesthetic jurisdiction ( the Cabildos ) and the spanish Crown. Upper administrative offices were closed to native-born people, flush those of arrant spanish blood ( criollo ). Administration was based on the racial separation. Society was organized in a racial hierarchy, with whites on acme, mixed-race persons and blacks in the middle, and autochthonal at the bottom. There were courtly legal designations of racial categories. The Republic of Spaniards ( República de Españoles ) comprised European- and American-born Spaniards, mixed-race castas, and black Africans. The Republic of Indians ( República de Indios ) comprised the autochthonal populations, which the Spanish lumped under the term Indian ( indio ), a spanish colonial social construct which autochthonal groups and individuals rejected as a category. Spaniards were exempt from paying tribute, spanish men had entree to higher education, could hold civil and ecclesiastical offices, were discipline to the Inquisition, and liable for military service when the standing military was established in the recently eighteenth hundred. Indigenous paid tribute, but were exempt from the Inquisition, autochthonal men were excluded from the priesthood ; and exempt from military service. Although the racial system appears fixed and rigid, there was some fluidity within it, and racial domination of whites was not complete. [ 85 ] Since the autochthonal population of New Spain was so big, there was less british labour party demand for expensive black slaves than other parts of spanish America. [ 86 ] [ 87 ] In the late eighteenth century the pennant instituted reforms that privileged Iberian-born Spaniards ( peninsulares ) over American-born ( criollos ), limiting their access to offices. This discrimination between the two became a sparking decimal point of discontentment for white elites in the colony. [ 88 ] The marian apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe said to have appeared to the autochthonal Juan Diego in 1531 gave drift to the evangelization of central Mexico. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The Virgin of Guadalupe became a symbol for American-born Spaniards ‘ ( criollos ) patriotism, seeking in her a mexican source of pride, clear-cut from Spain. [ 91 ] The Virgin of Guadalupe was invoked by the insurgents for independence who followed Father Miguel Hidalgo during the War of Independence. [ 90 ]
The rich deposits of argent, peculiarly in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, resulted in flatware extraction dominating the economy of New Spain. Taxes on silver product became a major reference of income for Spain. early important industries were the hacienda and mercantile activities in the main cities and ports. [ 92 ] Wealth created during the colonial earned run average spurred the exploitation of New Spanish Baroque. [ citation needed ] As a consequence of its trade links with Asia, the rest of the Americas, Africa and Europe and the profound effect of New World silver, cardinal Mexico was one of the first gear regions to be incorporated into a globalize economy. Being at the crossroads of deal, people and cultures, Mexico City has been called the “ first universe city “. [ 93 ] The Nao de China ( Manila Galleons ) operated for two and a half centuries and connected New Spain with Asia. Silver and the red dye cochineal insect were shipped from Veracruz to Atlantic ports in the Americas and Spain. Veracruz was besides the chief port of submission in mainland New Spain for european goods, immigrants from Spain, and african slaves. The Camino Real de Tierra Adentro connected Mexico City with the interior of New Spain. Mexican silver chilean peso became the first globally used currency .
Silver uruguayan peso mined and minted in colonial Mexico, which became a global currency spanish forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer district or quell rebellions through the colonial era. luminary amerindian revolts in sporadically populate northerly New Spain include the Chichimeca War ( 1576–1606 ), [ 94 ] Tepehuán Revolt ( 1616–1620 ), [ 95 ] and the Pueblo Revolt ( 1680 ), the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya disgust. [ 96 ] Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the rule elites. [ 97 ] To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect the Crown ‘s monopoly of tax income, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663 Sack of Campeche [ 98 ] and 1683 Attack on Veracruz. [ 99 ] Of greater concern to the crown was of extraneous invasion, specially after Britain seized in 1762 the spanish ports of Havana, Cuba and Manila, the Philippines in the Seven Years ‘ War. It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northerly presidios and missions into Alta California. The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was apparent in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of corn escalated to a all-out attack on the seats of office, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop ‘s mansion attacked by the syndicate. [ 85 ] due to the importance of New Spain administrative base, Mexico was the localization of the first print denounce ( 1539 ), [ 100 ] first university ( 1551 ), [ 101 ] first public park ( 1592 ), [ 102 ] and first public library ( 1640 ) in the Americas, [ 103 ] among other institutions. authoritative artists of the colonial period, include the writers Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, painters Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera, and architect Manuel Tolsá. The Academy of San Carlos ( 1781 ) was the foremost major educate and museum of art in the Americas. [ 104 ] german scientist Alexander von Humboldt spent a year in Mexico, finding the scientific community in the capital active and learned. He met mexican scientist Andrés Manuel del Río Fernández, who discovered the element vanadium in 1801. [ 105 ] many Mexican cultural features including tequila, [ 106 ] first distilled in the sixteenth century, charreria ( 17th ), [ 107 ] mariachi ( 18th ) and mexican cuisine, a coalition of American and European ( particularly spanish ) cuisine, get up during the colonial earned run average .

War of Independence ( 1810–1821 )

On 16 September 1810, a “ loyalist disgust ” against the rule military junta was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the little township of Dolores, Guanajuato. [ 108 ] This event, known as the Cry of Dolores ( spanish : Grito de Dolores ) is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico ‘s independence sidereal day. [ 109 ] The first base insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militia captain Juan Aldama and La Corregidora ( english : “ The Magistrate ” ) Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured and executed by firing police squad in Chihuahua, on 31 July 1811. [ 110 ] : 17–27 Following Hidalgo ‘s death, the leadership was assumed by Ignacio López Rayón and then by the priest José María Morelos, who occupied key southern cities with the documentation of Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás Bravo. In one luminary incident, Nicolas Bravo captured 200 monarchist soldiers, whom Morelos ordered should be executed in revenge of the mangle of Bravo ‘s father. In an dissemble of mercy, Bravo rather pardoned the prisoners, most of whom then joined the guerrilla cause. [ 110 ] : 40–41 In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on 6 November, signed the “ Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America “. [ 110 ] : 35–37 This Act besides abolished slavery and the caste system. Being a catholic priest himself, Morelos besides called for Roman Catholicism to be the exclusive faith in Mexico. [ 110 ] : 44–50 Morelos was captured and executed on 22 December 1815. [ 110 ] : 46
In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero who had among his believe soldiers, Filipino Mexicans who were concentrated in Guerrero, a state late named after Vicente Guerrero himself and where the mexican flag was first sew. Chief among the Filipino-Mexican soldiers was General Isidoro Montes de Oca who defeated Royalist armies 3 times his force out ‘s size. [ 111 ] Filipino engagement occurred even earlier when Manila-born Ramón Fabié joined the insurgents. then, the Criollo Royalist, Agustin Iturbide, alternatively of attacking Vicente Guerrero, approached Guerrero to join forces as he was impressed with his doggedness despite fighting larger odds, and on 24 August 1821 representatives of the spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the “ Treaty of Córdoba “ and the “ Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire “, which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the “ plan of Iguala “. [ 110 ] : 53–80 similarly to José María Morelos ‘ goals. [ clarification needed ] A provision of the Plan of Iguala of Agustín de Iturbide bringing about mexican independence in 1821, besides included Catholic exclusivity in the religious celestial sphere. The united states constitution of 1824 declared that the official religion of the Republic would be Catholic. Mexico ‘s short circuit convalescence after the War of Independence was soon cut light again by the civil wars, foreign invasion and occupation, and institutional instability of the mid-19th century, which lasted until the government of Porfirio Díaz reestablished conditions that paved the way for economic emergence. The conflicts that arose from the mid-1850s had a fundamental effect because they were far-flung and made themselves perceptible in the huge rural areas of the countries, involved clashes between castes, different ethnic groups, and haciendas, and entailed a intensify of the political and ideological divisions between republicans and monarchists. [ 112 ]

First Empire and the early Republic ( 1821–1855 )

The first thirty-five years after Mexico ‘s independence were marked by political instability and the changing form of the Mexican State, from a monarchy to a federated republic. There were military coups d’état, extraneous invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals, and economic stagnation. catholicism remained the alone permit religious religion and the Catholic Church as an institution retained its special privileges, prestige, and property, a bulwark of Conservatism. The united states army, another button-down institution, besides retained its privileges. Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide, became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought a built-in monarch from Europe. When no extremity of a european royal sign of the zodiac desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The new and faint United States was the first base nation to recognize Mexico ‘s independence, sending an ambassador to the woo of the emperor and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor ‘s convention was short ( 1822–23 ) and he was overthrown by army officers. [ 110 ] : 87–88 The successful rebels established the First Mexican Republic. In 1824, a constitution of a federate democracy was promulgated and former guerrilla general Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the newly born democracy. [ 110 ] : 94–95 Central America, including Chiapas, left the union. In 1829, early insurgent general and cutthroat Liberal Vicente Guerrero, a signer of the Plan de Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in function, April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. As a visibly mixed-race man of modest origins, Guerrero was seen by flannel political elites as an intruder. [ 113 ] His conservative vice president of the united states, former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante, led a coup d’etat against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered. [ 114 ] There was ceaseless discord between Liberals, supporters of a federal form of decentralize government and much called Federalists and their political rivals, the Conservatives, who proposed a hierarchical mannequin of government, were termed Centralists. [ 110 ] : 101–115, 125–127
Mexico ‘s ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable politics was in interview. Spain attempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s, but finally recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico ‘s unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the alleged Pastry War of 1838–39. [ 115 ] Santa Anna lost a leg in combat during this conflict, which he used for political purposes. Emerging as a national hero in defending Mexico was creole united states army general, Antonio López de Santa Anna, who had participated in the overrule of the emperor, fought the spanish invasion, and came to dominate the politics for the future 25 years, until his own upset in 1855. Mexico besides contended with autochthonal groups which controlled territory that Mexico claimed in the north. The Comanche controlled a huge territory in the sparsely populate region of cardinal and northerly Texas. [ 116 ] Wanting to stabilize and develop the frontier, the mexican government encouraged anglo-american immigration into contemporary Texas. The region bordered the United States, and was district controlled by Comanches. There were few settlers from central Mexico moving to this remote control and hostile district. Mexico by law was a catholic state ; the Anglo Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to mexican law. Santa Anna sought to centralize politics rule, suspending the constitution and promulgating the Seven Laws, which place power in his hands. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the nation. Three new governments declared independence : the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán. [ 110 ] : 129–137 The largest float to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–American War. Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern district, sealed in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Despite that black loss, conservative Santa Anna returned to the presidency however again and then was ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla .

liberal Reform, Second Empire, and Restored Republic ( 1855–1876 )

The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico ‘s economic development. It was a prelude to more civil wars and yet another extraneous invasion. The free Reform attempted to modernize Mexico ‘s economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a new constitution of 1857, separating church and State, stripping the bourgeois institutions of the Church and the military of their special privileges ( fueros ) ; mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of autochthonal community lands, and secularizing education. [ 117 ] Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and conservative governments ( 1858–61 ). The Liberals defeated the conservative army on the battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign treatment by the french. mexican conservatives asked Emperor Napoleon III to place a european monarch as head of express in Mexico. The french Army defeated the mexican Army and placed Maximilian Hapsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the french Army. The Liberal republic under Benito Juárez was basically a government in inner exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the U.S. in April 1865, that politics began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years late, the french Army withdrew its back, Maximilian remained in Mexico rather than return to Europe. republican forces captured him and he was executed in Querétaro, along with two conservative mexican generals. The “ Restored Republic ” saw the return of Juárez, who was “ the personification of the embattled democracy, ” [ 118 ] as president. The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily, but besides discredited politically for their collaboration with the french invaders. Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism. [ 119 ] The mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal united states army and then the united states army of the early republic was destroyed. New military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the french, most notably Porfirio Díaz, a hero of the Cinco de Mayo, who now sought civilian world power. Juárez won re-election in 1867, but was challenged by Díaz, who criticized him for running for re-election. Díaz then rebelled, crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in agency of natural causes in July 1872, and Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a “ religion of department of state ” for dominion of law, peace, and arrange. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the plan of Tuxtepec. Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla war against Lerdo. On the brink of Díaz ‘s victory on the battlefield, Lerdo fled from function, going into exile. [ 120 ] Another united states army general assumed the presidency of Mexico .

Porfiriato ( 1876–1911 )

The Metlac rail bridge in 1897. There was boastfully investing in railing transport during the Porfiriato . celebration of Mexico ‘s first gear one hundred years of independence in 1910. several projects were undertaken for the celebrations, such as the Monumento a louisiana Independencia After the tumult in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General Porfirio Díaz ( r.1876–1911 ) allowed Mexico to quickly modernize in a period characterized as one of “ arrange and progress “. The Porfiriato was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant alien investing and charm, an expansion of the railroad net and telecommunications, and investments in the arts and sciences. [ 121 ] The period was besides marked by economic inequality and political repression. Díaz knew the likely for united states army rebellions, and systematically downsized the outgo for the force, preferably expanding the rural patrol power under steer control of the president of the united states. Díaz did not provoke the Catholic Church, coming to a modus vivendi with it ; but he did not remove the anticlerical articles from the 1857 Constitution. From the belated nineteenth hundred, Protestants began to make inroads in Mexico. The government encouraged british and U.S. investing. commercial department of agriculture developed in northern Mexico, with many investors from the U.S. acquiring huge ranching estates and expanding irrigate polish of crops. The mexican government ordered a sketch of country with the purpose of selling it for development. In this period, many autochthonal communities lost their lands and the men became landless engage earners on large landed enterprises ( haciendas ). [ 122 ] British and U.S. investors developed extractive mining of copper, lead, and other minerals, adenine well as petroleum on the Gulf Coast. Changes in mexican law allowed for private enterprises to own the subsoil rights of land, preferably than continuing the colonial law that gave all subsoil rights to the State. An industrial fabrication sector besides developed, peculiarly in textiles. At the same time, newfangled enterprises gave rise to an industrial exercise force, which began organizing to gain tug rights and protections. Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the científicos ( “ scientists ” ). [ 123 ] The most influential científico was Secretary of Finance José Yves Limantour. [ 124 ] The Porfirian government was influenced by positivism. [ 125 ] They rejected theology and high-mindedness in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. As an integral expression of the broad project was layman education. The Díaz government led a drawn-out conflict against the Yaqui that culminated with the forced move of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca. Díaz ‘s long achiever did not include planning for a political transition beyond his own presidency. He made no try, however, to establish a class dynasty, naming no relative as his successor. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. political enemy had been suppressed and there were few avenues for a new coevals of leaders. But his announcement set off a craze of political natural process, including the unlikely campaigning of the scion of a deep landowning syndicate, Francisco I. Madero. Madero won a surprise amount of political hold when Díaz changed his beware and run in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato. The mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw a decade of civil war, the “ wreathe that swept Mexico. ” [ 126 ]

mexican Revolution ( 1910–1920 )

Revolutionaries, 1911 The mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict in Mexico, with consequences to this day. [ 127 ] It saw uprisings against President Díaz, his resignation, an interim presidency, and the democratic election of a ample landowner, Francisco I. Madero in 1911. In February 1913, a military coup d’etat d’état overthrew Madero ‘s government, with the support of the U.S., resulted in Madero ‘s mangle by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, the Constitutionalist Army oversee by Venustiano Carranza, and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata, defeated the Federal Army. In 1914 that army was dissolved as an initiation. Following the revolutionaries ‘ victory against Huerta, revolutionary armies sought to broker a passive political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico into civil war again. Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa, commanding officer of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza ‘s best general, Alvaro Obregón, defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the conflict of Celaya in 1915, and Villa ‘s forces melted aside. Carranza became the de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government. In 1916, the winners met at a built-in convention to draft the Constitution of 1917, which was ratified in February 1917. Said Constitution strengthened the anticlerical provisions that were carried over from the 1857 Constitution. [ 128 ] With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 population of 15 million. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] The U.S. has had a history of inference and intervention in Mexico, most notably the mexican-american War. During the Revolution, the Taft administration supported the Huerta coup d’etat against Madero, but when Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as president in March 1913, it refused to recognize Huerta ‘s regimen and allowed arms sales to the Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to occupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted. [ 131 ] After Pancho Villa was defeated by rotatory forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New Mexico, prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General John J. Pershing in an abortive attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as the U.S. entered World War I. [ 132 ] Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a code telegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the mexican-american War. [ 133 ] Mexico remained neutral in the conflict. Consolidating office, President Carranza had peasant-leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919. [ 110 ] : 312 Carranza had gained support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power he did little to distribute land, and, in fact, returned some impound land to their master owners. President Carranza ‘s best general, Obregón, served briefly in Carranza ‘s administration, but returned to his home state of Sonora to status himself to run in the 1920 presidential election. Carranza chose a political and revolutionary no-body to succeed him. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the plan of Agua Prieta, overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la Huerta became interim president, followed the election of General Álvaro Obregón .

political consolidation and one-party rule ( 1920–2000 )

Logo of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which incorporates the colors of the mexican sag The first gear quarter-century of the post-revolutionary period ( 1920–1946 ) was characterized by revolutionist generals serving as Presidents of Mexico, including Álvaro Obregón ( 1920–24 ), Plutarco Elías Calles ( 1924–28 ), Lázaro Cárdenas ( 1934–40 ), and Manuel Avila Camacho ( 1940–46 ). Since 1946, no member of the military has been President of Mexico. The post-revolutionary undertaking of the mexican politics sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and make organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even the army for a short-circuit period were incorporated as sectors of the individual party that dominated mexican politics from its initiation in 1929. Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized parturiency. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps to settle claims with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionist general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an abortive military disgust. As president of the united states, Calles provoked a major conflict with the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution. The church-state conflict was mediated and ended with the help of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico and ended with an agreement between the parties in conflict, by means of which the respective fields of action were defined. Although the constitution prohibited reelection of the president of the united states, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election. Obregón won the 1928 elections, but was assassinated by a Catholic partisan, causing a political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, since he has fair ended his term. He sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the party that was to dominate Mexico until the deep twentieth hundred. Calles declared that the Revolution had moved from caudillismo ( rule by strongmen ) to the era institucional ( institutional earned run average ). [ 134 ]
Pemex, the national vegetable oil company created in 1938 for reasons of economic nationalism ; it continues to provide major revenues for the government Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the cardinal political calculate during the period known as the Maximato ( 1929–1934 ). The Maximato ended during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas, who expelled Calles from the nation and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo – dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company. This movement would result in the creation of the state-owned Mexican petroleum caller Pemex. This sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Cárdenas ‘s root measure, but since then the party has played an crucial character in the economic development of Mexico. Cárdenas ‘s successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho ( 1940–1946 ) was more chasten, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during World War II, when Mexico was a significant ally, providing manpower and materiel to aid the war campaign. From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán, the foremost civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic growth, known as the Mexican miracle, which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and the increase of inequality in Mexico between urban and rural areas. [ 135 ] With full-bodied economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the populace by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics. The politics poured huge resources into building new facilities. At the like time, there was political agitation by university students and others with those expenditures, while their own circumstances were difficult. Demonstrations in cardinal Mexico City went on for weeks before the aforethought opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking down. The apogee was the Tlatelolco Massacre, [ 136 ] which claimed the lives of around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and possibly equally many as 800. [ 137 ]
Logo for the 1968 Mexico Olympics Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a factor of discontented. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what is immediately referred to as the Mexican Dirty War. [ 138 ] Luis Echeverría, Minister of the Interior under Díaz Ordaz, carrying out the repression during the Olympics, was elected president in 1970. His government had to contend with distrust of Mexicans and increasing economic problems. He instituted some with electoral reforms. [ 139 ] [ 140 ] Echeverría chose José López Portillo as his successor in 1976. Economic problems worsened in his early term, then massive reserves of petroleum were located off Mexico ‘s Gulf Coast. Pemex did not have the capacity to develop these reserves itself, and brought in foreign firms. oil prices had been high because of OPEC ‘s lock on vegetable oil production, and López Portilla borrowed money from alien banks for current spend to fund social programs. Those foreign banks were felicitous to lend to Mexico because the oil reserves were enormous and future revenues were collateral for loans denominated in U.S. dollars. When the price of oil dropped, Mexico ‘s economy collapsed in the 1982 Crisis. Interest rates soared, the cuban peso devalued, and unable to pay loans, the government defaulted on its debt. President Miguel de la Madrid ( 1982–88 ) resorted to currency devaluations which in act sparked inflation. In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI ‘s complete political dominance. In Baja California, the PAN campaigner was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose Carlos Salinas de Gortari as the campaigner for the PRI, and therefore a bygone presidential winner, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas, broke with the PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive electoral imposter, with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest share ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City to the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988. [ 141 ] In 1990 the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the “ arrant dictatorship ”, but by then there had been major challenges to the PRI ‘s hegemony. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] [ 144 ]
Although Salinas won by fraud, he embarked on a broadcast of neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchange rate of the philippine peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to extraneous investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade agreement. In ordain to do that, the Constitution of 1917 was amended in several important ways. article 27, which allowed the government to expropriate natural resources and distribute land, was amended to end agrarian reform and to guarantee secret owners ‘ property rights. The anti-clerical articles that muzzled religious institutions, specially the Catholic Church, were amended and Mexico reestablished of diplomatic relations with the Holy See, to which the Mexican State did not recognize as a political entity. Signing on to the north american Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) removed Mexico ‘s autonomy over deal policy. The agreement came into effect on 1 January 1994 ; the same sidereal day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation ( EZLN ) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition apparent motion against neoliberalism and globalization. In 1994, following the character assassination of the PRI ‘s presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio, Salinas was succeeded by substitute PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo. Salinas left Zedillo ‘s government to deal with the Mexican mexican peso crisis, requiring a $ 50 billion IMF bailout. major macroeconomic reforms were started by President Zedillo, and the economy quickly recovered and increase peaked at about 7 % by the end of 1999. [ 145 ]

contemporaneous Mexico

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the resistance National Action Party ( PAN ). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very minute margin ( 0.58 % ) over collectivist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador then the campaigner of the Party of the democratic Revolution ( PRD ). [ 146 ] López Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an “ option politics ”. [ 147 ] After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the presidency again with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto, the governor of the State of Mexico from 2005 to 2011. however, he won with a plurality of about 38 %, and did not have a legislative majority. [ 148 ] After founding the new political party MORENA, Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the 2018 presidential election with over 50 % of the vote. His political coalescence, led by his leftist party founded after the 2012 elections, includes parties and politicians from all over the political spectrum. The alliance besides won a majority in both the upper and lower congress chambers. AMLO ‘s ( one of his many nicknames ) success is attributed to the nation ‘s other solid political alternatives exhausting their chances arsenic well as the politician adopting a moderate discourse with focus in placation. [ 149 ] Mexico has contended with high crime rates, official corruption, narcotrafficking, and a stagnant economy. many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s, with neoliberal reforms, but Pemex, the state-owned petroleum company is lone slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued. [ 150 ] In AMLO ‘s push against government putrescence, the ex-CEO of Pemex has been arrested. [ 151 ] Although there were fears of electoral fraud in Mexico ‘s 2018 presidential elections, [ 152 ] the results gave a mandate to AMLO. [ 153 ] On 1 December 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador was sworn in as the newfangled President of Mexico. After winning a landslide victory in the July 2018 presidential elections, he became the beginning leftwing president of the united states for decades. [ 154 ] In June 2021 midterm elections, López Obrador ‘s left-leaning Morena ’ s coalescence lost seats in the lower house of Congress. however, his ruling coalition maintained a simpleton majority, but López Obrador failed to secure the two-thirds congressional supermajority. The chief opposition was a coalescence of Mexico ’ s three traditional parties : the center-right Revolutionary Institutional Party, rightist National Action Party and collectivist Party of the democratic Revolution. [ 155 ]

geography

Topographic map of Mexico Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N, and longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern part of North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the north american Plate, with belittled parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates. Geophysically, some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ( around 12 % of the sum ) within Central America. [ 156 ] Geopolitically, however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States. [ 157 ] Mexico ‘s sum area is 1,972,550 km2 ( 761,606 sq secret intelligence service ), making it the earth ‘s 13th largest state by total area. It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California, ampere well as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, the latter two forming contribution of the Atlantic Ocean. [ 158 ] Within these seas are about 6,000 km2 ( 2,317 sq mi ) of islands ( including the distant Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands ). From its farthest land points, Mexico is a fiddling over 2,000 mi ( 3,219 kilometer ) in length. On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 kilometer ( 1,952 nautical mile ) surround with the United States. The meandering Río Bravo del Norte ( known as the Rio Grande in the United States ) defines the edge from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican bound west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 kilometer ( 541 mi ) border with Guatemala and a 251 kilometer ( 156 myocardial infarction ) bound with Belize. Mexico is crossed from union to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the propagation of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America. From east to west at the center, the country is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt besides known as the Sierra Nevada. A fourth batch range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca. [ 159 ] As such, the majority of the mexican central and northern territories are located at gamey altitudes, and the highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt : Pico de Orizaba ( 5,700 megabyte or 18,701 foot ), Popocatépetl ( 5,462 meter or 17,920 foot ) and Iztaccihuatl ( 5,286 m or 17,343 foot ) and the Nevado de Toluca ( 4,577 thousand or 15,016 foot ). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys between these four elevations : Toluca, Greater Mexico City and Puebla. [ 159 ] An authoritative geological feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub volcanic crater. The scientific consensus is that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event .

climate

The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the area into temperate and tropical zones. Land union of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are reasonably constant class round and vary entirely as a affair of acme. This gives Mexico one of the world ‘s most diverse weather systems. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations improving to 1,000 megabyte ( 3,281 foot ) ( the southern parts of both coastal plains adenine well as the Yucatán Peninsula ), have a annual median temperature between 24 to 28 °C ( 75.2 to 82.4 °F ). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with merely a 5 °C ( 9 °F ) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Both mexican coasts, except for the south seashore of the Bay of Campeche and northerly Baja, are besides vulnerable to dangerous hurricanes during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas union of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they by and large have lower annual temperature averages ( from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F ) because of more centrist conditions during the winter. many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes broadly above 2,000 megabyte ( 6,562 foot ). This gives them a year-round temperate climate with annually temperature averages ( from 16 to 18 °C or 60.8 to 64.4 °F ) and cool night temperatures throughout the year. many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with sporadic rain while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south median more than 2,000 millimeter ( 78.7 in ) of annual precipitation. For exercise, many cities in the north like Monterrey, Hermosillo, and Mexicali have temperatures of 40 °C ( 104 °F ) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C ( 122 °F ) or more .

biodiversity

Mexico ranks fourthly [ 160 ] in the populace in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10–12 % of the earth ‘s biodiversity. [ 161 ] Mexico ranks first gear in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 know species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species. [ 162 ] Mexico is besides considered the second country in the worldly concern in ecosystems and fourth in overall species. [ 163 ] About 2,500 species are protected by mexican legislations. [ 163 ] In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest pace of deforestation in the global, second merely to Brazil. [ 164 ] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries. [ 165 ] The government has taken another inaugural in the late 1990s to broaden the people ‘s cognition, interest and use of the country ‘s esteemed biodiversity, through the Comisión Nacional para elevation Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. In Mexico, 170,000 straight kilometres ( 65,637 sq michigan ) are considered “ protect Natural Areas ”. These include 34 biosphere reserves ( unaltered ecosystems ), 67 national parks, 4 natural monuments ( protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or diachronic value ), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource auspices ( conservation of territory, hydrological basins and forests ) and 17 sanctuaries ( zones rich in divers species ). [ 161 ] The discovery of the Americas brought to the stay of the world many widely used food crops and edible plants. Some of Mexico ‘s native culinary ingredients include : chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla, guava, chayote, epazote, camote, jícama, nopal, zucchini, tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote, many varieties of beans, and an tied greater variety show of chiles, such as the habanero and the jalapeño. Most of these names come from autochthonal languages like Nahuatl. Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has besides been a patronize web site of bioprospecting by external inquiry bodies. [ 166 ] The first highly successful exemplify being the discovery in 1947 of the tuber “ Barbasco “ ( Dioscorea composita ) which has a high content of diosgenin, revolutionizing the production of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and finally leading to the invention of combine oral contraceptive pills. [ 167 ]

Government and politics

government

The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative, democratic and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government : the federal Union, the submit governments and the municipal governments. According to the constitution, all constituent states of the confederation must have a republican form of politics composed of three branches : the executive, represented by a governor and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral congress [ 168 ] [ original research? ] and the judiciary, which will include a country Supreme Court of Justice. They besides have their own civil and judicial codes. The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union, composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. [ 169 ] The federal Congress, adenine good as the express legislatures, are elected by a system of twin vote that includes plurality and proportional representation. [ 170 ] The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts ( the federal electoral districts ) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with close party lists [ 171 ] for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies. [ 172 ] The Senate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators ( two for each state and two for Mexico City ) are elected by plurality vote in pairs ; 32 senators are the first minority or first-runner up ( one for each state and one for Mexico City ), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists. [ 171 ]
The executive is the President of the United Mexican States, who is the head of express and politics, equally well as the commander-in-chief of the mexican military forces. The President besides appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President is creditworthy for executing and enforcing the law, and has the baron to veto bills. [ 173 ] The highest harmonium of the judicial outgrowth of government is the Supreme Court of Justice, the home supreme court, which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competence. other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. [ 174 ]

Politics

Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in mexican politics : the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ), a catch-all party [ 175 ] and member of the Socialist International [ 176 ] that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an about hegemonic ability in mexican politics since then ; the National Action Party ( PAN ), a button-down party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America ; [ 177 ] and the Party of the democratic Revolution ( PRD ) a leftist party, [ 178 ] founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalescence of socialists and liberal parties. PRD emerged after what has nowadays been proven was a steal election in 1988, [ 179 ] and has won numerous state and local elections since then. PAN won its beginning governorship in 1989, and won the presidency in 2000 and 2006. [ 180 ] A new political party, National Regeneration Movement ( MORENA ), a leftist-populist party, emerged after the 2012 election and dominated the 2018 Mexican general election. [ 181 ] Unlike many latin american countries, the military in Mexico does not participate in politics and is under civilian command. [ 182 ]

foreign relations

The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico [ 183 ] and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [ 184 ] The principles of the alien policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, section 10, which include : deference for external law and legal equality of states, their sovereignty and independence, drift to non-interventionism in the domestic affairs of early countries, passive settlement of conflicts, and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations. [ 183 ] Since the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. [ 185 ] Mexico is founding member of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, [ 186 ] the Organization of American States, [ 187 ] the Organization of Ibero-American States, [ 188 ] the OPANAL [ 189 ] and the CELAC. [ 190 ] In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget. [ 191 ] In addition, it was the only latin american penis of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained entire membership in 2010. [ 192 ] [ 193 ] Mexico is considered a regional ability [ 194 ] [ 195 ] hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods [ 196 ] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and early nine countries, which form a group colloquially called the Coffee Club. [ 197 ] After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused chiefly on the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trade partner, [ 198 ] and the most knock-down actor in hemispheric and world affairs. [ 199 ] Mexico supported the Cuban government since its constitution in the early 1960s, [ 200 ] the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s, [ 201 ] and collectivist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s. [ 202 ] Felipe Calderón ‘s administration ( 2006–2012 ) put a greater vehemence on relations with Latin America and the Caribbean. [ 203 ] Enrique Peña Nieto ( 2012–2018 ) emphasized economic issues and foreign investing, particularly the now-defunct Trans-Pacific Partnership. [ 204 ] Andrés Manuel López Obrador has taken a timid approach path, unwilling to challenge U.S. President Donald Trump on either craft or migration, while maintaining neutrality on Venezuela and welcoming taiwanese money. [ 205 ]

military

The Mexican military “ provides a alone example of a military leadership ‘s transforming itself into a civilian political elect, simultaneously transferring the basis of power from the united states army to a civilian state. ” [ 206 ] The transformation was brought approximately by revolutionary generals in the 1920s and 1930s, following the demise of the Federal Army following its complete kill during the decade-long Mexican Revolution. [ 207 ] The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches : the mexican Army ( which includes the Mexican Air Force ), and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics ; [ 208 ] [ 209 ] military industry manufacture centers for build up such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced projectile technologies. [ 210 ] In late years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and has taken steps to becoming more autonomous in supplying its military by designing a well as manufacturing its own arms, [ 211 ] missiles, [ 209 ] aircraft, [ 212 ] vehicles, heavy weaponry, electronics, [ 208 ] department of defense systems, [ 208 ] armor, intemperate military industrial equipment and heavy naval vessels. [ 213 ] Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies, [ 208 ] urban war equipment and rapid troop tape drive. [ 214 ] Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear engineering for passive purposes. [ 215 ] In 1970, Mexico ‘s national institute for nuclear inquiry successfully refined weapons grade uranium [ 216 ] [ failed verification ] which is used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexico agreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to the United States. [ 217 ] [ 218 ] Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. [ 219 ] historically, Mexico has remained achromatic in external conflicts, [ 220 ] with the exception of World War II. however, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution to allow the mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that formally ask for it. [ 221 ]

jurisprudence enforcement

Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has different prerogatives and responsibilities. local anesthetic and state police departments are primarily in commission of law enforcement, whereas the Mexican Federal Police are in blame of specialize duties. All levels report card to the Secretaría de Seguridad Pública ( Secretary of Public Security ). The General Attorney ‘s Office ( Fiscalía General de la República, FGR ) is a constitutional autonomous organism in charge of investigating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, chiefly those related to drug and arms traffic, [ 222 ] espionage, and bank robberies. [ 223 ] The FGR operates the Federal Ministerial Police ( Policia Federal Ministerial, PMF ) an fact-finding and preventive agency. [ 224 ] While the government broadly respects the human rights of its citizens, dangerous abuses of power have been reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in autochthonal communities and poor urban neighborhoods. [ 225 ] The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this course, engaging by and large in software documentation but failing to use its powers to issue populace condemnations to the officials who ignore its recommendations. [ 226 ] By police, all defendants have the rights that assure them carnival trials and humanist discussion ; however, the system is overburdened and overwhelmed with several problems. [ 225 ] Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime and imposter, most Mexicans have depleted confidence in the police or the discriminative arrangement, and consequently, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens. [ 225 ] The Global Integrity Index which measures the universe and potency of national anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st behind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia. [ 227 ] In 2008, president Calderón proposed a major reform of the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the Union, which included oral trials, the presumption of innocence for defendants, the authority of local police to investigate crime—until then a prerogative of particular police units—and respective early changes intended to speed up trials. [ 228 ]

crime

drug cartels are a major business in Mexico. [ 229 ] Mexico ‘s drug war, ongoing since 2006, has left over 120,000 dead and possibly another 37,000 missing. [ 36 ] The mexican drug cartels have american samoa many as 100,000 members. [ 230 ] Mexico ‘s National Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that in 2014, one-fifth of Mexicans were victims of some screen of crime. [ 231 ] The U.S. Department of State warns its citizens to exercise increased caution when traveling in Mexico, issuing travel advisories on its web site. [ 232 ]
President Felipe Calderón ( 2006–12 ) made eradicating organized crime one of the top priorities of his government by deploying military personnel to cities where drug cartels operate. This motion was criticized by the opposition parties and the National Human Rights Commission for escalating the violence, [ 233 ] but its effects have been positively evaluated by the US State Department ‘s Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs as having obtained “ unprecedented results ” with “ many important successes ”. [ 234 ] Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdown against cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged criminals have been successfully killed. [ 235 ] [ 236 ] Of the total drug-related violence 4 % are impeccant people, [ 237 ] largely by-passers and people trapped in between shootings ; 90 % accounts for criminals and 6 % for military personnel and police officers. [ 237 ] In October 2007, President Calderón and US president George W. Bush announced the Mérida Initiative, a plan of law enforcement cooperation between the two countries. [ 238 ] More than 100 journalists and media workers have been killed or disappeared since 2000, and most of these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with few perpetrators arrested and convicted. [ 239 ] [ 240 ] The mass kidnap of the 43 students in Iguala on 26 September 2014 triggered nationally protests against the government ‘s weak response to the disappearances and widespread corruption that gives absolve rein to criminal organizations. [ 241 ]

administrative divisions

The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 rid and sovereign states, which form a union that exercises a degree of legal power over Mexico City. [ 242 ] Each state has its own constitution, congress, and a judiciary, and its citizens elect by target voting a governor for a six-year term, and representatives to their respective unicameral country congresses for three-year terms. [ 243 ] Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a solid and not to a particular country. [ 242 ] once known as the Federal District, its autonomy was previously express relative to that of the states. [ 244 ] It dropped this appointment in 2016 and is in the process of achieving greater political autonomy by becoming a federal entity with its own constitution and congress. [ 245 ] The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest administrative political entity in the nation, governed by a mayor or municipal president ( presidente municipal ), elected by its residents by battalion. [ 246 ]

economy

A proportional representation of Mexico ‘s exports. The area has the most building complex economy in Latin America. As of April 2018, Mexico has the 15th largest nominative GDP ( US $ 1.15 trillion ) [ 247 ] and the 11th largest by purchasing power parity bit ( US $ 2.45 trillion ). GDP annual average growth was 2.9 % in 2016 and 2 % in 2017. [ 247 ] Agriculture has comprised 4 % of the economy over the last two decades, while industry contributes 33 % ( by and large automotive, petroleum, and electronics ) and services ( notably fiscal services and tourism ) contribute 63 %. [ 247 ] Mexico ‘s GDP in PPP per caput was US $ 18,714.05. The World Bank reported in 2009 that the country ‘s Gross National Income in market exchange rates was the second gear highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US $ 1,830.392 billion, [ 248 ] which led to the highest income per caput in the region at $ 15,311. [ 249 ] [ 250 ] Mexico is nowadays securely established as an amphetamine middle-income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the state has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percentage in 2004, 2005 and 2006, [ 251 ] even though it is considered to be well below Mexico ‘s potential growth. [ 252 ] The International Monetary Fund predicts growth rates of 2.3 % and 2.7 % for 2018 and 2019, respectively. [ 247 ] By 2050, Mexico could potentially become the populace ‘s fifth or seventh largest economy. [ 253 ] [ 254 ] Although multiple external organizations coincide and classify Mexico as an amphetamine middle income country, or a middle class state [ 255 ] [ 256 ] Mexico ‘s National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy ( CONEVAL ), which is the arrangement in appoint to measure the country ‘s poverty reports that a huge percentage of Mexico ‘s population lives in poverty. According to said council, from 2006 to 2010 ( year on which the CONEVAL published its first base countrywide report of poverty ) the part of Mexicans who live in poverty rose from 18 % –19 % [ 257 ] to 46 % ( 52 million people ). [ 258 ] however, preferably than Mexico ‘s economy crash, international economists attribute the huge increase in the percentage of population know below the country ‘s poverty credit line to the CONEVAL using modern standards to define it, as now besides people who lives below the economic wellbeing credit line, people who lacks at least one “ social motivation ” such as accomplished education, access to healthcare, access to regular food, house services and goods, social security etc. were considered to be living in poverty ( respective countries do collect information regarding the perseverance of said vulnerabilities on their population, but Mexico is the merely one that classifies people lacking one or more of those needs as living below its national poverty cable ). say economists do point out that the percentage of people living in poverty according to Mexico ‘s national poverty line is round 40 times higher than the one reported by the World Bank ‘s international poverty line ( with said dispute being the biggest in the universe ) and chew over if it would not be better for countries in the situation of Mexico to adopt internationalize standards to measure poverty so the numbers obtained could be used to make accurate external comparisons. [ 259 ] According to the OECD ‘s own poverty lineage ( defined as the share of a country ‘s population who earns 60 % [ 260 ] or less of the national median income ) 20 % of Mexico ‘s population lives in a situation of poverty. [ 261 ]
Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the second-highest degree of economic disparity between the highly inadequate and highly rich, after Chile – although it has been falling over the last decade, being one of few countries in which this is the lawsuit. [ 262 ] The bottom ten-spot percentage in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36 % of the country ‘s resources, whereas the amphetamine ten-spot percentage discard of about 36 %. The OECD besides notes that Mexico ‘s budgeted expenses for poverty easing and social development is only about a third gear of the OECD average. [ 263 ] This is besides reflected by the fact that baby deathrate in Mexico is three times higher than the average among OECD nations whereas its literacy levels are in the median range of OECD nations. however, according to Goldman Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th largest economy in the world. [ 264 ] According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a typical urbanize sphere of Mexico was $ 26,654, while the average income in rural areas fair miles away was only $ 8,403. [ 265 ] Daily minimal wages are set per annum being set at $ 102.68 Mexican colombian peso ( US $ 5.40 ) in 2019. [ 266 ] All of the indices of social development for the Mexican Indigenous population are well lower than the national average, which is motive of concern for the government. [ 267 ]
The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last ten. Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the earth after China, United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mexico is the second-largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $ 71.4 billion deserving of electronics in 2011. [ 268 ] The mexican electronics diligence is dominated by the manufacture and OEM blueprint of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, tour boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The mexican electronics industry grew 20 % between 2010 and 2011, up from its constant emergence rate of 17 % between 2003 and 2009. [ 268 ] Currently electronics represent 30 % of Mexico ‘s exports. [ 268 ] Mexico produces the most automobiles of any north american nation. [ 269 ] The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities. [ 270 ] The “ big Three ” ( General Motors, Ford and Chrysler ) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s. [ 271 ] In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers bunch around Volkswagen. [ 270 ] In the 2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone, more than $ 10 billion in investment was committed. In September 2016 Kia motors opened a $ 1 billion factory in Nuevo León, [ 272 ] with Audi besides opening an collection plant in Puebla the same year. [ 273 ] BMW, Mercedes-Benz and Nissan presently have plants in construction. [ 274 ] The domestic cable car industry is represented by DINA S.A., which has built buses and trucks since 1962, [ 275 ] and the newly Mastretta company that builds the high-performance Mastretta MXT sports cable car. [ 276 ] In 2006, trade with the United States and Canada accounted for about 50 % of Mexico ‘s exports and 45 % of its imports. [ 12 ] During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $ 46.0 billion trade deficit with Mexico. [ 277 ] In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become the 9th largest holder of US debt. [ 278 ] The commercial and fiscal dependence on the US is a cause for concern. [ 279 ] The remittances from mexican citizens working in the United States account for 0.2 % of Mexico ‘s GDP [ 280 ] which was peer to US $ 20 billion per year in 2004 and is the tenth largest source of foreign income after petroleum, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, intemperate industry, automobiles, construction, food, bank and fiscal services. [ 281 ] According to Mexico ‘s cardinal bank, remittances in 2008 amounted to $ 25bn. [ 282 ]

Communications

The telecommunications diligence is largely dominated by Telmex ( Teléfonos de México ), privatized in 1990. By 2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States. other players in the domestic diligence are Axtel, Maxcom, Alestra, Marcatel, AT & T Mexico. [ 283 ] Because of Mexican orology, providing a land line call service at distant mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones per head is low compared to early latin american countries, at 40 percentage ; however, 82 % of Mexicans over the age of 14 own a fluid phone. Mobile telephone has the advantage of reaching all areas at a lower monetary value, and the sum number of mobile lines is about two times that of landlines, with an estimate of 63 million lines. [ 284 ] The telecommunication diligence is regulated by the government through Cofetel ( Comisión Federal de Telecomunicaciones ). The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is besides across-the-board microwave radio receiver relay network and considerable habit of fiber-optic and coaxial cable. [ 284 ] Mexican satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos ( Satmex ), a private company, drawing card in Latin America and servicing both North and South America. [ 285 ] It offers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada to Argentina. Through clientele partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services. [ 286 ] Satmex maintains its own satellite evanesce with most of the fleet being designed and built in Mexico. major players in the air industry are Televisa, the largest mexican media company in the spanish-speaking global, [ 287 ] television receiver Azteca and Imagen Televisión .

Energy

Tehuantepecer, a strong wind that affects the region) The Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II in Oaxaca. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the region of Mexico with the highest capacity for wind energy. ( see, a strong weave that affects the region ) Energy production in Mexico is managed by the state-owned companies Federal Commission of Electricity and Pemex. Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, origin, department of transportation and market of crude oil and natural gasoline, a well as the refining and distribution of petroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of the largest companies in the world by gross, making US $ 86 billion in sales a year. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Mexico is the sixth-largest anoint producer in the earth, with 3.7 million barrels per day. [ 291 ] In 1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6 % of entire exports ; by 2000 it was entirely 7.3 %. [ 270 ] The largest hydro implant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW Manuel Moreno Torres Dam in Chicoasén, Chiapas, in the Grijalva River. This is the universe ‘s one-fourth most generative hydroelectric plant. [ 292 ] Mexico is the nation with the worldly concern ‘s third largest solar potential. [ 293 ] The area ‘s gross solar likely is estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50 times national electricity generation. [ 294 ] presently, there is over 1 million square meters of solar thermal panels [ 295 ] installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000 squarely meters of solar PV ( photo-voltaic ). It is expected that in 2012 there will be 1,8 million square meters of install solar thermal panels. [ 295 ] The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacity of 46.8 MW from an range of 187,200 solar panels when complete in 2013. [ 296 ] All of the electricity will be sold directly to the CFE and absorbed into the utility ‘s transmittance system for distribution throughout their existing network. At an install capacity of 46.8 MWp, when complete in 2013, the project will be the first utility scale undertaking of its kind in Mexico and the largest solar project of any kind in Latin America .

skill and engineering

The National Autonomous University of Mexico was officially established in 1910, [ 297 ] and the university became one of the most important institutes of higher teach in Mexico. [ 298 ] UNAM provides world class education in science, music, and technology. [ 299 ] many scientific institutes and raw institutes of higher memorize, such as National Polytechnic Institute ( founded in 1936 ), [ 300 ] were established during the beginning half of the twentieth hundred. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973. [ 301 ] In 1959, the Mexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinate scientific efforts between academics. In 1995, the Mexican pharmacist Mario J. Molina shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul J. Crutzen and F. Sherwood Rowland for their oeuvre in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the constitution and decomposition of ozone. [ 302 ] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science. [ 303 ] In holocene years, the largest scientific stick out being developed in Mexico was the construction of the Large Millimeter Telescope ( Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT ), the earth ‘s largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range. [ 304 ] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust. Mexico was ranked fifty-fifth in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, up from 56th in 2019. [ 305 ] [ 306 ] [ 307 ] [ 308 ]

tourism

As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most visit area in the world and had the fifteenth highest income from tourism in the universe which is besides the highest in Latin America. [ 309 ] The huge majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United States and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller count besides come from other latin american countries. [ 310 ] In the 2017 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, Mexico was ranked 22nd in the earth, which was 3rd in the Americas. [ 311 ] The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of beaches that are frequented by sunbathers and other visitors. According to home law, the entirety of the coastlines are under federal ownership, that is, all beaches in the country are public. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popular beach destinations is the recourse township of Cancún, specially among university students during spring pause. Just offshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and to the east is the Isla Holbox. To the south of Cancun is the coastal airstrip called Riviera Maya which includes the beach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological parks of Xcaret and Xel-Há. A day tripper to the south of Cancún is the historic port of Tulum. In addition to its beaches, the town of Tulum is celebrated for its cliff-side Mayan ruins. On the Pacific coast is the noteworthy tourist address of Acapulco. Once the finish for the full-bodied and celebrated, the beaches have become crowded and the shores are now home to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulco is home to renowned cliff divers : coach divers who leap from the side of a vertical cliff into the surf below. At the southern point of the Baja California peninsula is the recourse town of Cabo San Lucas, a town noted for its beaches and marlin fish. [ 312 ] Further north along the Sea of Cortés is the Bahía de La Concepción, another beach town known for its sports fish. Closer to the United States surround is the weekend drawing card of San Felipe, Baja California .

transportation

The Baluarte Bridge is the highest cable-stayed bridge in the worldly concern, the fifth-highest bridge overall and the highest bridge in the Americas. The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas in the country are covered by it. [ 313 ] The roadway net in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km ( 227,481 security service ), [ 314 ] of which 116,802 kilometer ( 72,577 myocardial infarction ) are paved. [ 315 ] Of these, 10,474 kilometer ( 6,508 michigan ) are multi-lane expressways : 9,544 kilometer ( 5,930 nautical mile ) are four-lane highways and the remainder have 6 or more lanes. [ 315 ] Starting in the late nineteenth hundred, Mexico was one of the first latin american countries to promote railroad track development, [ 225 ] and the net covers 30,952 kilometer ( 19,233 nautical mile ). [ 316 ] The Secretary of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers from Mexico City to Guadalajara, Jalisco. [ 317 ] [ 318 ] The coach, which will travel at 300 kilometres per hour ( 190 miles per hour ), [ 319 ] will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in precisely 2 hours. [ 319 ] The whole project was projected to cost 240 billion pesos, or about 25 billion US $ [ 317 ] and is being paid for jointly by the mexican politics and the local anesthetic private sector including the wealthiest man in the world, Mexico ‘s billionaire business baron Carlos Slim. [ 320 ] The government of the submit of Yucatán is besides funding the construction of a high accelerate argumentation connecting the cities of Cozumel to Mérida and Chichen Itza and Cancún. [ 321 ] Mexico has 233 airports with pave runways ; of these, 35 carry 97 % of the passenger traffic. [ 316 ] The Mexico City International Airport remains the busy in Latin America and the 36th busiest in the earth [ 322 ] transporting 45 million passengers a year. [ 323 ]

Water issue and sanitation

Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped body of water issue in urban areas ( 96.4 % ) adenine well as in rural areas ( 69.4 % ) as of 2018. [ 324 ] other achievements include the being of a operation national organization to finance water and sanitation infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its vertex institution. The challenges include urine scarcity in the northerly and central parts of the country ; inadequate urine avail choice ( drinking water quality ; 11 % of Mexicans receiving water only intermittently as of 2014 ) ; [ 325 ] poor technical and commercial efficiency of most utilities ( with an median flat of non-revenue water of 43.2 % in 2010 ) ; [ 326 ] increasing the national share of fully sanitized water which at 57 %, [ 327 ] is considered to not be enough, as the country ‘s theoretically available percentage of water system per caput is 60 % lower than it was 60 years ago ; [ 328 ] and the improvement of adequate access in rural areas. In summation to ongoing investments to expand entree, the government has embarked on a large investment program to improve effluent discussion .

Demographics

mexican states by population density Throughout the nineteenth hundred, the population of Mexico had scantily doubled. This tendency continued during the first two decades of the twentieth hundred, and even in the 1921 census there was a loss of about 1 million inhabitants. The phenomenon can be explained because during the ten from 1910 to 1921 the mexican Revolution took place. The growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s and the 1980s, when the area registered growth rates of over 3 % ( 1950–1980 ). The mexican population doubled in twenty years, and at that rate it was expected that by the class 2000 there would be 120 million Mexicans. Life anticipation went from 36 years ( in 1895 ) to 72 years ( in the year 2000 ). According to estimations made by Mexico ‘s National Geography and Statistics Institute, as of 2017 Mexico has 123.5 million inhabitants [ 329 ] making it the most populous spanish-speaking area in the world. [ 330 ] Between 2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 1.70 % per class, up from 1.16 % per year between 2000 and 2005. even though Mexico is a very ethnically diverse country, research about ethnicity has largely been a forget field, in consequence of the post-revolutionary efforts of Mexico ‘s government to unify all non-indigenous Mexicans under a single cultural identity ( that of the “ Mestizo ” ). As a result, since 1930 the entirely explicit ethnic classification that has been included in Mexican censuses has been that of “ autochthonal peoples ”. [ 331 ] tied then, across the years the politics has used different criteria to count Indigenous peoples, with each of them returning well different numbers ranging from 6.1 % [ 1 ] to 23 % of the area ‘s population. It is not until identical recently that the mexican government began conducting surveys that consider other ethnic groups that live in the country such as Afro-Mexicans who amount to 2 % of Mexico ‘s population [ 1 ] or White Mexicans [ 332 ] [ 333 ] who amount to 47 % of Mexico ‘s population ( with the criteria being based on appearance rather than on self-declared ancestry ). [ 334 ] [ 335 ] [ 336 ] [ 337 ] [ 338 ] Less numerous groups in Mexico such as Asians and Middle Easterners are besides accounted for, with numbers of around 1 % each. As of 2017, it is estimated that 1.2 million foreigners have settled in the area, [ 339 ] up from closely 1 million in 2010. [ 340 ] The huge majority of migrants come from the United States ( 900,000 ), making Mexico the clear destination for U.S. citizens abroad. [ 341 ] The second largest group comes from neighboring Guatemala ( 54,500 ), followed by Spain ( 27,600 ). [ 339 ] other major sources of migration are companion latin american english countries, which include Colombia ( 20,600 ), Argentina ( 19,200 ) and Cuba ( 18,100 ). [ 339 ] Historically, the lebanese diaspora and the German-born Mennonite migration have left a ill-famed impingement in the nation ‘s culture, particularly in its cuisine and traditional music. [ 342 ] [ 343 ] At the turn of the twenty-first hundred, several trends have increased the numeral of foreigners residing in the area such as the 2008–2014 spanish fiscal crisis, [ 344 ] increasing gang-related violence in the Northern Triangle of Central America, [ 345 ] the ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela, [ 346 ] [ 347 ] and the automotive diligence boom led by japanese and south korean investment. [ 348 ] [ 349 ]

ethnicity and subspecies

Las castas. Casta painting showing 16 racial groupings. Anonymous, 18th century, oil on canvas, 148×104 cm, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán. Casta painting showing 16 racial groupings. Anonymous, eighteenth century, oil on canvas tent, 148×104 centimeter, , Mexico. Regardless of ethnicity, the majority of Mexicans are united under the like national identity. [ 350 ] This is the merchandise of an ideology powerfully promoted by mexican academics such as Manuel Gamio and José Vasconcelos known as mestizaje, whose goal was that of Mexico becoming a racially and culturally homogeneous state. [ 351 ] [ 350 ] [ 352 ] The ideology ‘s influence was reflected in Mexico ‘s national censuses of 1921 and 1930 : in the erstwhile, which was Mexico ‘s first-ever national census ( but second-ever if the census made in colonial times is taken into bill ) [ 83 ] that considered race, approximately 60 % of Mexico ‘s population identified as Mestizos, [ 353 ] and in the latter, Mexico ‘s government declared that all Mexicans were now Mestizos, for which racial classifications would be dropped in favor of language-based ones in future censuses. [ 331 ] During most of the twentieth hundred these censuses ‘ results were taken as fact, with extraofficial international publications much using them as a reference to estimate Mexico ‘s racial composition, [ 354 ] [ 225 ] [ 355 ] but in late time historians and academics have claimed that said results are not accurate, as in its efforts to homogenize Mexico, the government inflated the Mestizo label ‘s percentage by classifying a good number of people as such regardless of whether they were of actual shuffle lineage or not, [ 356 ] [ 357 ] [ 358 ] [ 359 ] pointing out that an alteration therefore drastic of population trends compared to earlier censuses such as New Spain ‘s 1793 census ( on which Europeans were estimated to be 18 % to 22 % of the population, Mestizos 21 % to 25 % and Indigenous peoples 51 % to 61 % ) [ 83 ] is not possible and that the frequency of marriages between people of different ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico was low. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] It is besides observed that when asked directly about their ethno-racial designation, many Mexicans nowadays do not identify as Mestizos, [ 362 ] would not agree to be labeled as such, [ 363 ] and that “ static ” ethnoracial labels such as “ White ” or “ indian ” are far more big in contemporaneous Mexican club than the “ Mestizo ” one is, whose use is by and large limited to cerebral circles, a leave of the label ‘s constantly-changing and immanent definition. [ 364 ] The sum share of Mexico ‘s autochthonal peoples tends to vary depending on the criteria used by the government in its censuses : if the ability to speak an autochthonal language is used as the standard to define a person as autochthonal, it is 6.1 %, [ 1 ] [ 365 ] if racial self-identification is used, it is 14.9 % [ 366 ] [ five hundred ] and if people who consider themselves part autochthonal are besides included, it amounts to 23 %. [ 369 ] Nonetheless, all the censuses conclude that the majority of Mexico ‘s autochthonal population is concentrated in rural areas of the southern and south-eastern Mexican states, [ 370 ] with the highest percentages being found in Yucatán ( 59 % of the population ), Oaxaca ( 48 % ), Quintana Roo ( 39 % ), Chiapas ( 28 % ), and Campeche ( 27 % ). [ 267 ] [ 371 ] similarly to Mestizo and autochthonal peoples, estimates of the share of European-descended Mexicans vary well depending on the criteria used : late nationally airfield surveys that account for unlike phenotypical traits ( hair color, skin color etc. ) report a share between 18 % [ 372 ] -23 % [ 373 ] if the criterion is the presence of blond haircloth, and of 47 % if the standard is bark color, with the late surveys having been conducted by Mexico ‘s government itself. [ 334 ] [ 335 ] [ 336 ] [ 338 ] [ 374 ] While, during the colonial earned run average, most of the european migration into Mexico was spanish, in the 19th and twentieth centuries, a substantial count of non-Spanish Europeans immigrated to the country, [ 375 ] with Europeans frequently being the most numerous heathen group in colonial mexican cities. [ 376 ] [ 377 ] Nowadays, Mexico ‘s northern and western regions have the highest percentages of european populations, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being of predominantly european lineage. [ 378 ]
The Afro-Mexican population ( 2,576,213 individuals as of 2020 ) [ 1 ] [ 379 ] is an ethnic group made up of descendants of Colonial-era slaves and holocene immigrants of sub-saharan african origin. Mexico had an active slave trade during the colonial menstruation, and some 200,000 Africans were taken there, primarily in the seventeenth century. The universe of a national Mexican identity, particularly after the mexican Revolution, emphasized Mexico ‘s autochthonal and european by ; it passively eliminated the african ancestors and contributions. Most of the African-descended population was absorbed into the surrounding Mestizo ( blend European/indigenous ) and autochthonal populations through unions among the groups. evidence of this farseeing history of exogamy with Mestizo and autochthonal Mexicans is besides expressed in the fact that, in the 2015 inter-census, 64.9 % ( 896,829 ) of Afro-Mexicans besides identified as autochthonal. It was besides reported that 7.4 % of Afro-Mexicans speak an autochthonal lyric. [ 1 ] [ 380 ] The states with the highest self-report of Afro-Mexicans were Guerrero ( 8.6 % of the population ), Oaxaca ( 4.7 % ) and Baja California Sur ( 3.3 % ). [ 1 ] [ 381 ] Afro-Mexican culture is strongest in the communities of the Costa Chica of Oaxaca and Costa Chica of Guerrero. During the early twentieth hundred, a significant numeral of Arabs ( largely Christians ) [ citation needed ] began arriving from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. The largest group were the Lebanese and an estimated 400,000 Mexicans have some lebanese ancestry. [ 382 ] Smaller ethnic groups in Mexico include South and East Asians, give since the colonial era. During the colonial era, Asians were termed Chino ( regardless of ethnicity ), and arrived as merchants, artisans and slaves. [ 383 ] A study by Juan Esteban Rodríguez, a alumnus scholar at the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, indicated that up to one third gear of people sampled from Guerrero state of matter had importantly more asian ancestry than most Mexicans, primarily Filipino or Indonesian. [ 384 ] [ 385 ] Modern Asian immigration began in the recently nineteenth hundred, and at one point in the early twentieth hundred, the Chinese were the second largest immigrant group. [ 386 ]

emigration

In the early on 1960s, round 600,000 Mexicans lived abroad, which increased septuple by the 1990s to 4.4 million. [ 387 ] At the twist of the twenty-first century, this design more than doubled to 9.5 million. [ 387 ] As of 2017, it is estimated that 12.9 million Mexicans live abroad, chiefly in the United States, which concentrates about 98 % of the expatriate population. [ 387 ] The majority of Mexicans have settled in states such as California, Texas and Illinois, peculiarly around the metropolitan areas of Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston and Dallas–Fort Worth. [ 388 ] As a result of these major migration flows in recent decades, around 36 million U.S. residents, or 11.2 % of the country ‘s population, identified as being of full or partial mexican ancestry. [ 389 ] The remaining 2 % of expatriates have settled in Canada ( 86,000 ), chiefly in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, [ 390 ] followed by Spain ( 49,000 ) and Germany ( 18,000 ), both European destinations represent about two-thirds of the Mexican population support in the continent. [ 387 ] As for Latin America, it is estimated that 69,000 Mexicans live in the region, Guatemala ( 18,000 ) being the top destination for expatriates, followed by Bolivia ( 10,000 ) and Panama ( 5,000 ). [ 387 ]

Languages

; spanish is the de facto national linguistic process spoken by the huge majority of the population, making Mexico the worldly concern ‘s most populous Hispanophone country. [ 391 ] [ 330 ] Mexican Spanish refers to the varieties of the terminology spoken in the area, which differ from one area to another in sound, social organization, and vocabulary. In general, mexican spanish does not make any phonetic distinction among the letters s and z, a well as c when preceding the vowels e and i, as opposed to Peninsular Spanish. The letters b and v have the same pronunciation as well. Furthermore, the custom of vos, the second person singular pronoun, found in several latin american varieties, is replaced by tú ; whereas vosotros, the irregular person plural pronoun, fell out of use and was efficaciously replaced by ustedes. In written form, the spanish Royal Academy serves as the primary coil guidepost for spelling, except for words of amerindian beginning that retain their original phonology such as cenzontle rather of sinzontle and México not Méjico. Words of extraneous lineage besides maintain their original spell such as “ whiskey ” and “ film ”, as opposed to güisqui and filme as the Royal Academy suggests. The letter x is distinctly used in Mexican Spanish, where it may be pronounced as [ k ] ( as in oxígeno or taxi ) ; as [ ʃ ], peculiarly in amerindian words ( e.g. mixiote, Xola and uxmal ) ; and as the aphonic velar fricative [ x ] ( such as Texas and Oaxaca ). The federal government officially recognizes sixty-eight linguistic groups and 364 varieties of autochthonal languages. [ 393 ] It is estimated that around 8.3 million citizens address these languages, [ 394 ] with Nahuatl being the most wide spoken by more than 1.7 million, followed by Yucatec Maya used casual by closely 850,000 people. Tzeltal and Tzotzil, two other Mayan languages, are spoken by around half a million people each, chiefly in the southerly state of Chiapas. [ 394 ] Mixtec and Zapotec, with an estimated 500,000 native speakers each, are two other big language groups. [ 394 ] Since its universe in March 2003, the National Indigenous Languages Institute has been in charge of promoting and protecting the use of the state ‘s autochthonal languages, through the General Law of Indigenous Peoples ‘ Linguistic Rights, which recognizes them de jure as “ national languages ” with status adequate to that of spanish. [ 395 ] That notwithstanding, in practice, autochthonal peoples much face discrimination and do n’t have full access to public services such as education and healthcare, or to the department of justice arrangement, as spanish is the prevail lyric. [ 396 ] aside from autochthonal languages, there are several minority languages spoken in Mexico due to international migration such as low german by the 80,000-strong Menonite population, primarily settled in the northern states, fuelled by the permissiveness of the federal government towards this residential district by allowing them to set their own educational system compatible with their customs and traditions. [ 397 ] The Chipilo dialect, a variation of the venetian lyric, is spoken in the township of Chipilo, located in the central submit of Puebla, by around 2,500 people, chiefly descendants of Venetians that migrated to the area in the former nineteenth century. [ 398 ] Furthermore, English is the most normally teach foreign language in Mexico. It is estimated that closely 24 million, or around a fifth of the population, study the linguistic process through public schools, secret institutions or self-access channels. [ 399 ] however, a high level of English proficiency is limited to only 5 % of the population. [ 400 ] furthermore, French is the second gear most widely teach alien linguistic process, as every year between 200,000 and 250,000 mexican students enroll in linguistic process courses. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] [ 403 ]

Urban areas

religion

The 2020 census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía ( National Institute of Statistics and Geography ) gave Roman Catholicism as the independent religion, with 77.7 % ( 97,864,218 ) of the population, while 11.2 % ( 14,095,307 ) belong to Protestant/Evangelical Christian denominations—including other Christians ( 6,778,435 ), Evangelicals ( 2,387,133 ), Pentecostals ( 1,179,415 ), Jehovah ‘s Witnesses ( 1,530,909 ), Seventh-day Adventists ( 791,109 ), and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints ( 337,998 ) — ; 8.1 % ( 9,488,671 ) declared having no religion ; .4 % ( 491,814 ) were unspecified. [ 1 ] [ 404 ]
The 97,864,218 [ 1 ] Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second gear largest Catholic residential district in the global, after Brazil ‘s. [ 407 ] 47 % percentage of them attend church services weekly. [ 408 ] The feast day of Our dame of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated on 12 December and is regarded by many Mexicans as the most important religious vacation of their nation. [ 409 ] The denominations Pentecostal besides have an important presence, specially in the cities of the boundary line and in the autochthonal communities. As of 2010, Pentecostal churches together have more than 1.3 million adherents, which in web numbers place them as the irregular Christian creed in Mexico. The situation changes when the different Pentecostal denominations are considered as separate entities. The third-largest Christian group is the Jehovah ‘s Witnesses, which totals more than 1 million adherents. In the like census The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, whose members are known as Mormons, reported 314,932 members, [ citation needed ] though the church claimed in 2009 to have over one million registered members. [ 410 ] other groups are growing, such as Iglesia apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesús, Mennonites and Seventh-day Adventist Church and Church of the La Luz del Mundo, which has its center in “ La Hermosa Provincia “, a colony of Guadalajara. Migratory phenomenon have led to the spread of different aspects of Christianity, including branches Protestants, Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox Church. [ 411 ] The presence of Jews in Mexico dates bet on to 1521, when Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs, accompanied by several Conversos. [ 412 ] According to the 2020 census, there are 58,876 Jews in Mexico. [ 1 ] Islam in Mexico ( with 7,982 members ) is practiced largely by Arab Mexicans. [ 1 ] In the 2010 census 36,764 Mexicans reported belonging to a medium religion, [ 1 ] a class which includes a bantam Buddhist population .
view of the Chapel of Mercy of the Panteón Francés ( french Cemetery ) According to Jacobo Grinberg ( in text edited by the National Autonomous University of Mexico ), the survival of magic-religious rituals of the old autochthonal groups is noteworthy, not merely in the current autochthonal population but besides in the mestizo and white population that make up the mexican rural and urban club. There is often a syncretism between shamanism and Catholic traditions. Another religion of popular syncretism in Mexico ( specially in late years ) is the Santería. This is chiefly due to the big count of Cubans who settled in the territory after the Cuban Revolution ( chiefly in states such as Veracruz and Yucatán ). even though Mexico was besides a recipient of black slaves from Africa in the sixteenth hundred, the apogee of these cults is relatively new. [ 413 ] In cosmopolitan, democratic religiosity is viewed with bad eyes by institutionally structured religions. One of the most admonitory cases of popular religiosity is the fad of Holy Dead ( Santa Muerte ). The Catholic hierarchy insists on describing it as a demonic cult. however, most of the people who profess this cult declare themselves to be catholic believers, and consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they offer to the Christ Child and the adoration of God. other examples are the representations of the Passion of Christ and the celebration of Day of the Dead, which take home within the framework of the Catholic Christian complex number, but under a very particular reinterpretation of its protagonists. [ 414 ] In certain regions, the profession of a religious doctrine other than the Catholic is seen as a menace to community one. It is argued that the Catholic religion is separate of the cultural identity, and that the Protestants are not will to participate in the traditional customs and practices ( the tequio or community work, participation in the festivities and alike issues ). The refusal of the Protestants is because their religious beliefs do not allow them to participate in the cult of images. In extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has led to the expulsion or even murder of Protestants in respective villages. The best know cases are those of San Juan Chamula, [ 415 ] [ 416 ] in Chiapas, and San Nicolás, in Ixmiquilpan, [ 417 ] Hidalgo. A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the government of the Republic to expel the Summer Linguistic Institute ( SIL ), in the year 1979, which was accused of promoting the division of autochthonal peoples by translating the Bible into slang languages and evangelizing in a Protestant religious doctrine that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The mexican government paid attention to the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement that had held with the SIL. [ 418 ]

Health

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in the health of its population and some indicators such as mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly develop countries like Germany or Japan. [ 419 ] Mexico ‘s medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most function and is normally excellent in major cities, [ 420 ] [ 421 ] but rural communities silent lack equipment for progress medical procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the closest urban areas to get specialized medical concern. [ 225 ] Social determinants of health can be used to evaluate the state of matter of health in Mexico. State-funded institutions such as mexican Social Security Institute ( IMSS ) and the Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers ( ISSSTE ) play a major character in health and sociable security. Private health services are besides very significant and report for 13 % of all checkup units in the state. [ 422 ] aesculapian discipline is done largely at public universities with much specializations done in vocational or internship settings. Some populace universities in Mexico, such as the University of Guadalajara, have signed agreements with the U.S. to receive and train american students in Medicine. Health care costs in private institutions and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North american english economic partners. [ 420 ]

education

In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97 % [ 423 ] for youth under the age of 14, and 91 % for people over 15, [ 424 ] placing Mexico at 24th topographic point in the world according to UNESCO. [ 425 ] Nowadays, Mexico ‘s literacy pace is high, at 94.86 % in 2018, up from 82.99 % in 1980, [ 426 ] with the literacy rates of males and females being relatively equal. The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks 103rd in the QS World University Rankings, making it the best university in Mexico. After it comes the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher department of education as the best private school in Mexico and 158th global in 2019. [ 427 ] Private clientele schools besides stand out in international rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the business schools of Universidad Panamericana and of Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education respectively, were ranked in the clear 10 in a survey conducted by The Wall Street Journal among recruiters outside the United States. [ 428 ]

Women

Gobernacion) in President López Obrador’s cabinetOlga Sánchez Cordero, Minister of the Interior () in President López Obrador’s cabinet Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country, with rural women ‘s condition defined within the context of the family and local community. With urbanization beginning in the one-sixteenth hundred, following the spanish seduction of the Aztec empire, cities have provided economic and social opportunities not possible within rural villages. Beginning in the late nineteenth hundred, women including middle-class women began working outside the home plate in offices and factories, and the derive access to education. [ 429 ] [ 430 ] Women were granted right to vote in 1953. [ 431 ] In the twenty-first century, mexican women are big in politics, academia, journalism, literature, and ocular arts among other fields. In President Andrés Manuel López Obrador ‘s first cabinet following his 2018 election, he appointed women in equal numbers as men. [ 432 ] however, a wave of feminist movement in 2020 has criticized the president of the united states for his tone-deaf response to murders of women in Mexico. [ 433 ] Mexico is among the countries that treat particular murders of women as femicide. [ 434 ] In 2014, Mexico had the 16th highest pace of homicides committed against women in the world. [ 435 ] The remains of the victims were frequently mutilated. [ 436 ] According to a 1997 study, domestic misuse in mexican polish “ is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women ‘s dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of quixotic love, by syndicate structure and residential arrangements ”. [ 437 ] The perpetrators are much the boyfriend, father-in-law, ex-husbands or husbands but only 1.6 % of the murder cases led to an catch and sentence in 2015. [ 436 ] After a peculiarly well-publicized ghastly femicide followed by that of a kidnap little daughter, women began protesting more vociferously, falling on deaf ears, including those of President López Obrador. This is the beginning raw and major motion with which his presidency has had to deal. On International Women ‘s Day ( 8 March ) in 2020, women staged a massive demonstration in Mexico City with some 80,000 participants. On Monday, 9 March 2020, the irregular day of action was marked by the absence of women at bring, in class, shopping and other public activities. The “ Day Without Women ” ( Día Sin Nosotras ) was reported in the international wardrobe along with the previous day ‘s demonstrations. [ 438 ] [ 439 ]

culture

mexican culture reflects the complexity of the state ‘s history through the blend of autochthonal cultures and the culture of Spain, imparted during Spain ‘s 300-year colonial rule of Mexico. exogenous cultural elements have been incorporated into mexican culture as fourth dimension has passed. The Porfirian era ( el Porfiriato ), in the last quarter of the nineteenth hundred and the foremost decade of the twentieth hundred, was marked by economic progress and peace. After four decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and the arts, promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated during the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its foundation in the mestizaje, of which the autochthonal ( i.e. amerindian ) component is the effect. In idle of the respective ethnicities that formed the mexican people, José Vasconcelos in La Raza Cósmica ( The Cosmic Race ) ( 1925 ) defined Mexico to be the melting toilet of all races ( thus extending the definition of the mestizo ) not only biologically but culturally a well. [ 440 ] other Mexican intellectuals grappled with the mind of Lo Mexicano, which seeks “ to discover the national ethos of mexican culture. ” [ 441 ] Nobel laureate Octavio Paz explores the notion of a mexican home character in The Labyrinth of Solitude .

Painting

Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave paint in Mexican district is about 7500 years old and has been found in the caves of the Baja California Peninsula. pre-columbian Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in Aztec codices, in ceramics, in garments, etc. ; examples of this are the Maya mural paintings of Bonampak, or those of Teotihuacán, those of Cacaxtla and those of Monte Albán. mural paint with religious themes had an important unfolding during the sixteenth century ; the same in religious constructions as in houses of linage ; such is the case of the convents of Acolman, Actopan, Huejotzingo, Tecamachalco and Zinacantepec. These were besides manifested in illustrate manuscripts such as the 1576 Florentine codex oversee by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún. Most art in the colonial era was religious, but starting in the late seventeenth century and most prominently in the eighteenth century, secular portraits and casta paint appeared. significant painters of the late colonial period were Juan Correa, Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera. Nineteenth-century paint had a marked romantic influence ; landscapes and portraits were the greatest expressions of this earned run average. Hermenegildo Bustos is one of the most appreciate painters of the historiography of Mexican art. early painters include Santiago Rebull, Félix Parra, Eugenio Landesio, and his celebrated schoolchild, the landscape artist José María Velasco. [ 442 ] mexican paint of the twentieth hundred has achieved universe fame with figures such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Joaquín Clausell, Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, a generation of idealists who marked the trope of modern Mexico in the face of potent social and economic criticism. The Oaxacan School promptly gained fame and prestige, dispersion of ancestral and modern culture. exemption of plan is observed in sexual intercourse to the color and texture of the canvases and murals as a period of transition between the twentieth century and the twenty-first hundred. Federico Cantú Garza, Juan O’Gorman, and Rufino Tamayo are besides significant artists. Diego Rivera, the most long-familiar figure of mexican muralism, painted the man at the Crossroads at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, a huge mural that was destroyed by the Rockefellers the future year because of the inclusion of a portrait of russian communist leader Lenin. [ 443 ] Some of Rivera ‘s murals are displayed at the Mexican National Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts. Some of the most outstanding painters in the late twentieth hundred and early twenty-first hundred : Francisco Toledo was a mexican Zapotec cougar, sculptor, and graphic artist. In a career that spanned seven decades, Toledo produced thousands of works of artwork and became wide regarded as one of Mexico ‘s most significant contemporary artists. Verónica Ruiz de Velasco is a neofigurative painter and muralist. Both Verónica Ruiz de Velasco and Francisco Toledo were students of Rufino Tamayo. Gilberto Aceves Navarro is besides considered an significant contemporary artist. Throughout history several big painters of different nationalities have expressed in their works the face of Mexico. Among the most great we can mention are Claudio Linati, Daniel Thomas Egerton, Carl Nebel, Thomas Moran, and Leonora Carrington .

sculpture

sculpture was an built-in separate of pre-columbian Mesoamerican civilizations, ( Mayans, Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Aztecs ), and others, normally religious in nature. From the spanish conquest in 1521, civil and religious sculpture was created by autochthonal artists, with guidance from Spaniards, indeed some pre-columbian features are apparent. Since the seventeenth century, white and mestizo sculptors have created works with a set determine of european classicism. After independence in 1821, sculpture was influenced by Romanticism, which tended to break the rigorous norms and models of classicism, while it pursued ideas influenced by realism and nationalism. religious sculpt was reduced to a sporadic imagination, while the secular sculpture continued in portraits and massive art of a civic nature. between 1820 and 1880 the prevailing themes were, successively : religious images, biblical scenes, allegories to the symbols of the independence insurgency, scenes and personages of pre-columbian history, and busts of the old gentry, of the nascent middle class and commanders of the pre-revolution. During the twentieth hundred, some significant exponents of mexican sculpt are Juan Soriano, José Luis Cuevas, and Enrique Carbajal ( besides known as Sebastián ). [ citation needed ]

architecture

The presence of the humans in the Mexican territory has left important archaeological findings of great importance for the explanation of the habitat of primitive man and contemporary man. The mesoamerican civilizations managed to have big stylistic development and proportion on the human and urban scale, the kind was evolving from ease to aesthetic complexity ; in the north of the country the adobe and stone architecture is manifested, the multifamily house as we can see in Casas Grandes ; and the caveman populate in caves of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Urbanism had a great development in pre-columbian cultures, where we can see the magnitude of the cities of Teotihuacán, Tollan-Xicocotitlan and México-Tenochtitlan, within the environmentalist urbanism highlight the Mayan cities to be incorporated into the monumentality of its buildings with the thickness of the hobo camp and complex networks of roads called sakbés. mesoamerican architecture is noted for its pyramids which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient Egypt. [ citation needed ] spanish Colonial architecture is marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain has some of the most celebrated buildings built in this style. With the arrival of the Spaniards, architectural theories of the Greco-Roman ordain with arabian influences were introduced. due to the process of evangelization, when the beginning monk temples and monasteries were built, their own models were projected, such as the mendicant monasteries, unique in their type in computer architecture. The interaction between Spaniards and natives gave get up to artistic styles such as the alleged tequitqui ( from Nahuatl : worker ). Years subsequently the baroque and idiosyncrasy were imposed in big cathedrals and civil buildings, while rural areas are built haciendas or baronial farms with Mozarabic tendencies. [ citation needed ]
In the nineteenth century the neoclassic movement arose as a response to the objectives of the republican state, one of its examples are the Hospicio Cabañas where the stern plastic of the classical orders are represented in their architectural elements, new religious buildings besides arise, civilian and military that demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. Romanticists from a past seen through archeology show images of medieval Europe, Islamic and pre-columbian Mexico in the form of architectural elements in the construction of external exhibition pavilions looking for an identity distinctive of the national culture. The art nouveau, and the art deco were styles introduced into the blueprint of the Palacio de Bellas Artes to mark the identity of the mexican state with Greek-Roman and pre-columbian symbols. [ citation needed ] modern computer architecture in Mexico has an crucial growth in the malleability of form and space, José Villagrán García develops a theory of kind that sets the traffic pattern of teaching in many schools of computer architecture in the nation within functionalism. The emergence of the newly Mexican architecture was born as a formal order of the policies of a patriot state that sought modernity and the specialization of other nations. The development of a mexican modernist architecture was possibly by and large fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the earned run average, including Mario Pani, Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez Morado. It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. [ 444 ] Juan O’Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing the “ organic ” theory, trying to integrate the build with the landscape within the like approaches of Frank Lloyd Wright. [ 445 ] In the search for a raw architecture that does not resemble the styles of the past, it achieves a articulation expression with the mural paint and the landscaping. The Jalisco School was a proposal of those socio-political movements that the area demanded. Luis Barragán combined the shape of the quad with forms of rural common architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries ( Spain-Morocco ), integrating an impressive color that handles light and ghost in different tones and opens a search at the external minimalism. He won the 1980 Pritzker Prize, the highest award in architecture. [ 446 ] mexican computer architecture is a cultural phenomenon give birth of the political orientation of nationalist governments of the twentieth hundred, which was shaping the identity effigy by its colorful and variegated ornamental elements inherited from ancestral cultures, authoritative and monumental forms and, subsequently, the incorporation of modernism and up-to-date external trends. [ citation needed ]

photography

Mexico has been photographed since the nineteenth hundred, when the engineering was beginning modernize. During the Porfiriato, Díaz realized the importance of photography in shaping the understand of his regimen and its accomplishments. The government hired Guillermo Kahlo ( father of painter Frida Kahlo ) to create photographic images of Mexico ‘s new industrial structures arsenic well as its pre-columbian and colonial past. Photographer Hugo Brehme specialized in images of “ picturesque ” Mexico, with images of mexican places and often rural people. During the Mexican Revolution, photographers chronicled the conflict, normally in the aftermath of a battle, since large and heavy equipment did not permit action shots. Agustín Victor Casasola is the most celebrated of photographer of the revolutionary era, and he collected other photographers ‘ images in the Casasola Archive ; his huge collection was purchased by the mexican government and is now contribution of the politics photographic repository, the Fototeca. [ 447 ] [ 448 ] After the revolution, mexican photographers created photograph as artwork images. [ 449 ] Among others, celebrated mexican photographers include Manuel Álvarez Bravo, Héctor García Cobo, and Graciela Iturbide .

literature

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, “ The Tenth Muse. ” Posthmous portrayal Juan Cabrera mexican literature has its antecedents in the literature of the autochthonal settlements of Mesoamerica. Poetry had a rich cultural custom in pre-columbian Mexico, being divided into two broad categories—secular and religious. aztec poetry was sung, chanted, or spoken, often to the escort of a drum or a harp. While Tenochtitlan was the political capital, Texcoco was the cultural center ; the Texcocan linguistic process was considered the most melodious and refined. The best well-known pre-columbian poet is Nezahualcoyotl. [ 450 ] literature during the sixteenth hundred consisted largely of histories of spanish conquests, and most of the writers at this fourth dimension were from Spain. Bernal Díaz del Castillo ‘s True History of the Conquest of Mexico is still widely read today. Spanish-born poet Bernardo de Balbuena extolled the virtues of Mexico in Grandeza mexicana ( Mexican nobility ) ( 1604 ) ; Francisco de Terrazas was the first Mexican-born poet to attain fame. [ 451 ] Baroque literature flourished in the seventeenth hundred ; the most noteworthy writers of this period were Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and Juana Inés de la Cruz. Sor Juana was celebrated in her own fourth dimension, called the “ Ten Muse. ” [ 451 ] The 18th and early 19th centuries gave us José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose The Mangy Parrot ( “ El Periquillo Sarniento ” ), is said to be the first latin american novel. several Jesuit humanists wrote at this time, and they were among the first to call for independence from Spain. [ 451 ] other writers include Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Octavio Paz ( Nobel Laureate ), Carlos Fuentes, Alfonso Reyes, Renato Leduc, Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela ( Los de abajo ) and Juan Rulfo ( Pedro Páramo ). Bruno Traven wrote Canasta de cuentos mexicano ( A basket of Mexican tales ) and El tesoro de la Sierra Madre ( Treasure of the Sierra Madre ), Luis Spota, Jaime Sabines, Martín Luis Guzmán, Nellie Campobello, ( Cartucho ), and Valeria Luiselli ( Faces in the Crowd ) are besides noteworthy. [ 452 ]

cinema

mexican films from the Golden Age in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples of latin american film, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. mexican films were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe. María Candelaria ( 1943 ) by Emilio Fernández, was one of the foremost films awarded a Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1946, the inaugural fourth dimension the event was held after World War II. The celebrated Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel realized in Mexico between 1947 and 1965 some of his masterpieces like Los Olvidados ( 1949 ) and Viridiana ( 1961 ). celebrated actors and actresses from this period include María Félix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Río, Jorge Negrete and the comedian Cantinflas. More recently, films such as Como agua para chocolate ( 1992 ), Sex, Shame, and Tears ( 1999 ), Y tu mamá también ( 2001 ), and The Crime of Father Amaro ( 2002 ) have been successful in creating universal stories about contemporaneous subjects, and were internationally recognized. mexican directors Alejandro González Iñárritu ( Amores perros, Babel, Birdman, The Revenant ), Alfonso Cuarón ( A Little Princess, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Gravity, Roma ), Guillermo del Toro ( Hellboy, Pan’s Labyrinth, Crimson Peak, The Shape of Water ), screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga and photographer Emmanuel Lubezki are some of the most acknowledge contemporary film makers. numerous mexican actors have achieved recognition as Hollywood stars. [ 453 ]

Media

There are three major television companies in Mexico that own the primary networks and broadcast covering all nation, Televisa, television Azteca and Imagen Television. Televisa is besides the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the earth and besides the world ‘s largest Spanish-language media network. [ 454 ] Media caller Grupo Imagen is another home coverage television broadcaster in Mexico, that besides owns the newspaper Excélsior. Grupo Multimedios is another media pudding stone with Spanish-language broadcast in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The telenovelas are very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with celebrated names like Verónica Castro, Victoria Ruffo and Lucero .

cuisine

Mole sauce, which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol of Mexicanidad[455] and is considered Mexico’s national dish.[455], which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol ofand is considered Mexico ‘s national cup of tea. The origin of the current Mexican cuisine was established during the spanish colonial earned run average, a concoction of the foods of Spain with native autochthonal ingredients. [ 456 ] Foods autochthonal to Mexico include corn whiskey, pepper vegetables, calabazas, avocado, sweetly potato, turkey, many beans, and early fruits and spices. Similarly, some cook techniques used today are inherited from pre-columbian peoples, such as the nixtamalization of corn, the cooking of food in ovens at land charge, grinding in molcajete and metate. With the Spaniards came the pork, beef and chicken meats ; peppercorn, sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet of Mexicans. From this meet of millennium honest-to-god two culinary traditions, were born pozole, mole sauce, barbacoa and tamale is in its current forms, the cocoa, a boastfully range of breads, taco, and the broad repertoire of Mexican street foods. Beverages such as atole, champurrado, milk chocolate and agua frescas were born ; desserts such as acitrón and the entire range of crystallize sweets, rompope, cajeta, jericaya and the broad repertory of delights created in the convents of nuns in all parts of the country. In 2005, Mexico presented the campaigning of its gastronomy for World Heritage Site of UNESCO, the inaugural clock time a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this purpose. [ 457 ] The result was negative, because the committee did not place the proper vehemence on the importance of corn in Mexican cuisine. [ 458 ] On 16 November 2010 Mexican gastronomy was recognized as intangible cultural inheritance by UNESCO. [ 459 ] In addition, Daniela Soto-Innes was named the best female chef in the worldly concern by The World’s Best 50 Restaurants in April 2019. [ 460 ]

music

Mexico has a long custom of classical music music, as far back as the sixteenth hundred, when it was a spanish colony. Music of New Spain, specially that of Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a meaning contribution to New World culture. [ citation needed ] Although the traditions of european opera and particularly italian opera had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and powerfully influenced native opera composers ( in both style and subject matter ), elements of mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter separate of the nineteenth hundred with operas such as Aniceto Ortega del Villar ‘s 1871 Guatimotzin, a romanticize account of the defense of Mexico by its last aztec rule, Cuauhtémoc. Ángela Peralta was an operatic soprano of international fame, known in Europe as “ The Mexican Nightingale “, who sang in the premieres of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar. [ citation needed ]
mexican club enjoys a huge array of music genres, showing the diversity of mexican culture. traditional music includes mariachi, banda, norteño, ranchera and corridos ; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such as pop music, rock, etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media diligence in Latin America, producing mexican artists who are celebrated in Central and South America and parts of the United States and Europe, particularly Spain. Elements from the Indigenous peoples of Mexico music have deeply influenced Mexico ‘s music at big, distinguishing it from european and asian traditions [ citation needed ]. The Bolero, Cha-cha-cha and Mambo invade the radio of the 40s and 50s mimicking the idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Known as Agustín Lara, the Mexican composer was and spokesperson of songs and boleros, most popular songwriter of his era. [ citation needed ] César Costa and Angélica María in the 1970s performed cover versions of songs and their own as most of the toss off music produced in Mexico consisted on Spanish-language versions of English-language rock ‘n’ roll hits. [ citation needed ] Grupera music became decidedly democratic in the 1990s to jointly refer to what is now referred to as regional Mexican music. relatively late american english creations jazz, techno, and house music have crossed over. [ citation needed ]

Sports

Mexico ‘s most popular sport is association football. It is normally believed that football was introduced in Mexico by cornish miners at the end of the nineteenth century. By 1902 a five-team league had emerged with a impregnable british influence. [ 461 ] [ 462 ] Mexico ‘s circus tent clubs are América with 12 championships, Guadalajara with 11, and Toluca with 10. [ 463 ] Antonio Carbajal was the first actor to appear in five World Cups, [ 464 ] and Hugo Sánchez was named best CONCACAF player of the twentieth hundred by IFFHS. [ 465 ] Rafael Márquez is the only Mexican to have won the Champions League. [ 466 ] The Mexican master baseball league is named the Liga Mexicana de Beisbol. While normally not vitamin a hard as the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan, Mexico has however achieved several international baseball titles. [ 467 ] [ 468 ] Mexican teams have won the Caribbean Series nine times. Mexico has had several players signed by Major League teams, the most celebrated of them being Dodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela. [ 466 ] Mexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968, making it the first base latin american city to do so. [ 469 ] The nation has besides hosted the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1970 and 1986. [ 470 ] In 2013, Mexico ‘s basketball team won the Americas Basketball Championship and qualified for the 2014 Basketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs. Because of these achievements the area earned the host rights for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship. [ 471 ] Bullfighting ( spanish : bullfight de toros ) came to Mexico 500 years ago with the arrival of the Spanish. Despite efforts by animal rights activists to outlaw it, bullfighting remains a popular sport in the country, and about all large cities have bullrings. Plaza México in Mexico City, which seats 45,000 people, is the largest bullring in the earth. [ 472 ] Mexico is an external power in professional packing. [ 466 ] Thirteen Olympic boxing medals have been won by Mexico. [ 473 ] professional wrestle ( or Lucha libre in spanish ) is a major herd draw with national promotions such as AAA, CMLL and others. [ 466 ]

See besides

Notes

References

bibliography

Government
General information

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