Wikipedia

state in the Great Rift Valley
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PersonUmuRundiPeopleAbaRundiLanguageKiRundiCountryBurundi
Burundi (, ), formally the Republic of Burundi ( Kirundi : Repubulika y’Uburundi, [ 12 ] [ u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi ] ; Swahili : Jamuhuri ya Burundi ; french : République du Burundi, [ buʁundi ] or [ byʁyndi ] ), is a landlocked state in the Great Rift Valley where the African Great Lakes region and East Africa converge. It is bordered by Rwanda to the union, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the democratic Republic of the Congo to the west ; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern bound. The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura, the latter of which is besides the largest city. [ 13 ] The Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom, until the beginning of the twentieth hundred, when Germany ruled the region. [ 14 ] After the beginning World War and Germany ‘s get the better of, the League of Nations “ mandated ” the district to Belgium. After the second gear World War this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory. Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a european colony known as Ruanda-Urundi. [ 15 ] Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common govern until the time of european invasion of Africa. [ 15 ]

Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially had a monarchy, but a series of assassinations, coups and a general climate of regional instability culminated in the establishment of a democracy and one-party submit in 1966. Bouts of ethnic cleanse and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths and left the economy undeveloped and the population as one of the worldly concern ‘s poorest. [ 16 ] The year 2015 witnessed large-scale political discord as President Pierre Nkurunziza opted to run for a one-third term in position, a coup d’etat attack failed and the area ‘s parliamentary and presidential elections were broadly criticised by members of the international community. The sovereign state of Burundi ‘s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic democracy based upon a multi-party country. The President of Burundi is the head of state and oral sex of government. There are presently 21 registered parties in Burundi. [ 17 ] On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup drawing card Pierre Buyoya established a united states constitution, [ 18 ] which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party contest. [ 19 ] Six years late, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly ‘s seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000. [ 20 ] In October 2016, Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court. [ 21 ] Burundi remains chiefly a rural society, with just 13.4 % of the population life in urban areas in 2019. [ 8 ] The population concentration of around 315 people per squarely kilometer ( 753 per sq myocardial infarction ) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. [ 17 ] roughly 85 % of the population are of Hutu cultural origin, 15 % are Tutsi, and fewer than 1 % are autochthonal Twa. [ 22 ] The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English, Kirundi being recognised officially as the exclusive national language. [ 23 ] One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi ‘s down is used by and large for subsistence agriculture and graze, which has led to deforestation, dirty erosion and habitat loss. [ 24 ] As of 2005 the country was about wholly deforested, with less than 6 % of its land covered by trees and over half of that being commercial plantations. [ 25 ] In addition to poverty, Burundi often suffers from corruptness, faint infrastructure, inadequate access to health and education services, and starve. [ 26 ] Burundi is densely populated and many new people emigrate in research of opportunities elsewhere. The World Happiness Report 2018 ranked the nation as the world ‘s least glad with a rank of 156. [ 27 ] Burundi is a penis of the African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement .

etymology [edit ]

Modern Burundi is named after the King of Burundi, who ruled the region starting in the sixteenth century. It may ultimately derive its name from the Ha people of the region, whose place of origin was known as Buha. [ 28 ]

history [edit ]

Burundi is one of the few countries in Africa, along with its neighbor Rwanda among others ( such as Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini ), to be a direct territorial continuance of a pre-colonial era african submit. The early history of Burundi, and particularly the role and nature of the area ‘s three dominant ethnic groups, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi, is highly argue amongst academics. [ 29 ] however, it is significant to note that the nature of culture and heathen groups is constantly fluid and changing. While the groups might have migrated to the area at different times and angstrom distinctly unlike ethnic groups, the stream distinctions are considered by some to be socio-cultural constructs. initially the different heathen groups lived together in proportional peace. The first base conflicts between cultural groups can be dated back to the seventeenth hundred, when estate was becoming always more barely because of the continuous growth in population .

Kingdom of Burundi [edit ]

The first evidence of the burundi state dates back to the belated sixteenth century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi, or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him ; sequence struggles were common. [ 5 ] The king, known as the mwami ( translated as ruler ) headed a princely nobility ( ganwa ) which owned most of the kingdom and required a tribute, or tax, from local anesthetic farmers ( chiefly Hutu ) and herders ( chiefly Tutsi ). The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and feeder economic exchange. [ 30 ] In the mid-18th hundred, the Tutsi royalty consolidate agency over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client kinship in which the populace received imperial protection in central for tribute and land tenure. By this prison term, the royal woo was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru. They had higher sociable condition than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi-Hima. In the lower levels of this society were by and large Hutu people, and at the identical bottom of the pyramid were the Twa. The system had some fluidity, however. Some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way besides had a suppose in the serve of the submit. [ 31 ] The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa. On the other hand, there are besides reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher condition and were called Hutu. Thus, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was besides a socio-cultural concept, alternatively of a strictly heathen one. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] There were besides many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people. [ 34 ] In general, regional ties and might struggles played a far more determine function in Burundi ‘s politics than ethnicity. [ 33 ] Burundi ceased to be a monarchy when king Ntare V Ndizeye was deposed by his Prime Minister and Chief of Staff, Capt. Michel Micombero, who abolished the monarchy and declared a democracy following the November 1966 coup d’état. [ citation needed ]

invasion and Rule by european Powers [edit ]

From 1884, the german East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes area. As a resultant role of heightened tensions and edge disputes between the german East Africa Company, the british Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the german conglomerate was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire ‘s interests in the area. The german East Africa Company transferred its rights to the german empire in 1891, in this means establishing the german colony of german East Africa, which included Burundi ( Urundi ), Rwanda ( Ruanda ), and the mainland part of Tanzania ( once known as Tanganyika ). [ 15 ] The german Empire stationed arm forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s. The location of the contemporary city of Gitega served as an administrative kernel for the Ruanda-Urundi area. [ 35 ] During the First World War, the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region. The allied powers, the british Empire and Belgium launched a coordinated attack on the german colony. The german united states army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the belgian army and by 17 June 1916, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The Force Publique and the british Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative center of central German East Africa. After the war, as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede “ command ” of the western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium. [ 17 ] [ 36 ] On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi, which consisted of contemporary Rwanda and Burundi, became a belgian League of Nations mandate territory, with Usumbura as its das kapital. In hardheaded terms it was considered separate of the belgian colonial conglomerate. Burundi, as depart of Ruanda-Urundi, continued its kingship dynasty despite the invasion of Europeans. [ 8 ] [ 37 ] The Belgians, however, preserved many of the kingdom ‘s institutions ; the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial time period. [ 5 ] Following the second base World War, Ruanda-Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority. [ 8 ] During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the area. On 4 October 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi ‘s politics between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities besides had powers. [ 37 ] In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties. [ 17 ] These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium, on 1 July 1962 .

independence [edit ]

Independence Square and memorial in Bujumbura. On 20 January 1959, Burundi ‘s rule Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi ‘s independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union. [ 38 ] In the comply months, burundi political parties began to advocate for the end of belgian colonial rule and the interval of Rwanda and Burundi. [ 38 ] The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress ( UPRONA ). Burundi ‘s push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and cultural conflict that occurred there. As a result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi during the time period from 1959 to 1961. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Burundi ‘s first elections took identify on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multiethnic oneness party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won merely over 80 % of the electorate ‘s votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalists. [ 17 ] [ 42 ] The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962, [ 17 ] and legally changed its identify from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi. [ 43 ] Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore ‘s father, serving as the area ‘s king. [ 40 ] On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations. [ 44 ] In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe, but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy. The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which western anti-communist countries were confronting the communist People ‘s Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo. [ 45 ] Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the fantan, but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi premier minister, some Hutu felt this was unfair and cultural tensions were farther increased. In October 1965, an attempted coup d’etat d’état led by the Hutu-dominated patrol was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi policeman Captain Michel Micombero [ 40 ] purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a harbinger to the 1972 Burundian Genocide. [ 46 ] King Mwambutsa, who had fled the state during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his adolescent son, Prince Ntare V, claimed the toilet. In November that same year, the Tutsi Prime Minister, then-Captain Michel Micombero, carried out another coup, this fourth dimension deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic, though his one-party politics was effectively a military dictatorship. [ 17 ] As president, Micombero became an advocate of african socialism and received hold from the People ‘s Republic of China. He imposed a stem regimen of law and order and sharply suppress Hutu militarism .

Civil war and genocides [edit ]

In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the busu famine First Burundian Genocide. On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac and the rebels declared the ephemeral Martyazo Republic. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 80 to 120 people were killed. [ 51 ] At the like time, King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile, heightening political latent hostility in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero used the united states army to combat Hutu rebels and entrust genocide, murdering target members of the Hutu majority. The total count of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 298,000 and 370,000. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaïre, Rwanda and Tanzania. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] == Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and retire. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup d’etat to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi ‘s condition as a one-party state of matter. [ 40 ] In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of country. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms. major Pierre Buyoya ( Tutsi ) overthrew Bagaza in 1987, suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a military Committee for National Salvation ( CSMN ). [ 40 ] Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000 [ citation needed ] ; some external NGOs believed this understated the deaths. The new government did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its attempt to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit rating for the killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the “ culture of impunity. ” other analysts put the origins of the “ culture of impunity ” earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a little phone number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis. [ citation needed ] In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya, asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks late, Buyoya appointed a newly government, with an equal act of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed Adrien Sibomana ( Hutu ) as Prime Minister. Buyoya besides created a committee to address issues of home oneness. [ 40 ] In 1992, the government created a raw fundamental law that provided for a multi-party system, [ 40 ] but a civil war broke out. An calculate total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from the assorted conflicts between 1962 and 1993. [ 55 ] Since Burundi ‘s independence in 1962, two genocides have taken place in the state : the 1972 multitude killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army, [ 56 ] and the mass killings of tutsi in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final examination composition of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council. [ 57 ]

first try at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population [edit ]

In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, drawing card of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi ( FRODEBU ), won the first democratic election. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he moved to attempt to smooth the nation ‘s piercingly cultural watershed, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a fail military coup d’etat in October 1993, after entirely three months in function. The ensuing Burundian Civil War ( 1993–2005 ) saw persistent ferocity between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority united states army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, largely civilians, were killed in the years following the character assassination. [ 58 ] In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira ( Hutu ) to the office of president. He and Juvénal Habyarimana, the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya ( Hutu ), was appointed as president in October 1994. A alliance politics involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A reverence general slaughter was averted, but violence broke out. A phone number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura, [ citation needed ] the then-capital, were killed. The chiefly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament. In 1996, Pierre Buyoya ( Tutsi ) again took baron through a coup d’état. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the originate of his second condition as president, after his first gear term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the politics forced much of the population to move to refugee camps. [ 59 ] Under Buyoya ‘s rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha, Tanzania and Pretoria, South Africa, to share office in Burundi. The agreements took four years to design .
On 28 August 2000, a transitional politics for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional politics was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted cease-fires, a 2001 peace plan and power-sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A armistice was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled burundi government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD ( National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy ). [ 60 ] In 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye ( Hutu ) was elected president of the united states. [ 61 ] In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi ‘s politics. Throughout the year, elections for parliament and president of the united states occurred. [ 62 ] Pierre Nkurunziza ( Hutu ), once a drawing card of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008, the burundian government was talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National liberation Forces ( NLF ) [ 63 ] to bring peace to the country. [ 64 ]

peace agreements [edit ]

african leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis. Talks were initiated under the breastplate of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995 ; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela took the helm. As the talks progressed, south african President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton besides lent their respective weight. The peace talks took the shape of Track I mediations. This method acting of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives, who may use their positive reputations, mediation or the “ carrot and stay ” method acting as a entail of obtaining or forcing an result, frequently along the lines of “ dicker ” or “ win-lose ”. [ 65 ] The main objective was to transform the burundi government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic opening between the Tutsi and Hutu. It was to take place in two major steps. First, a transitional power-sharing government would be established, with the presidents holding office for three-year terms. The second objective involved a restructure of the armed forces, where the two groups would be represented equally. As the drawn-out nature of the peace talks demonstrated, the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles. First, the burundi officials perceived the goals as “ unrealistic ” and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, confounding and confusing. Second, and possibly most importantly, the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying discontinue fire. This would require separate and lineal talks with the rebel groups. The independent Hutu party was doubting of the offer of a power-sharing politics ; they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements. In 2000, [ 66 ] the Burundian President signed the treaty, american samoa well as 13 of the 19 war Hutu and Tutsi factions. Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government, and when the ceasefire would begin. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hard-line Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the agreement ; as a resultant role, violence intensified. Three years subsequently at a summit of african leaders in Tanzania, the Burundian president of the united states and the independent resistance Hutu group signed an harmonize to end the battle ; the signer members were granted ministerial posts within the politics. however, smaller belligerent Hutu groups – such as the Forces for National Liberation – remained active .

UN involvement [edit ]

between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, oversee by regional leaders in Tanzania, South Africa and Uganda, gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. initially the south african Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect burundian leaders returning from exile. These forces became character of the African Union Mission to Burundi, deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi. [ 67 ] The mission ‘s mandate, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, has been to monitor armistice ; carry out disarming, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants ; confirm humanist aid and refugee and IDP return ; help with elections ; protect international staff and burundi civilians ; monitor Burundi ‘s troublesome borders, including halting illicit arms flows ; and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well. It has greatly benefited from the transitional government, which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected. [ 67 ] The main trouble in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace summons by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group. This administration continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN ‘s bearing. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought second into the political process. All political parties have accepted a rule for inter-ethnic power-sharing : no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrate. [ 67 ] The focus of the UN ‘s mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly vote united states constitution, so that elections may be held and a modern government installed. Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration were done in bicycle-built-for-two with elections preparations. In February 2005, the constitution was approved with over 90 % of the popular vote. In May, June and August 2005, three separate elections were besides held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency. While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the deputation managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the once belligerent leaders, ampere well as the population at large. [ 67 ] It was involved with several “ quick effect ” projects, including rehabilitate and construct schools, orphanages, health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines .

2006 to 2018 [edit ]

view of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006. reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping deputation and re-focused on helping with reconstruction. [ 68 ] Toward achieving economic reconstruction, Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries. [ 68 ] In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community in 2007. however, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last leftover armed resistance group, the FLN ( Forces for National Liberation, besides called NLF or FROLINA ), were not wholly implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the armistice monitor team, claiming that their security was threatened. [ 69 ] In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. rebel raids were reported in other parts of the state. [ 68 ] The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarming and the release of political prisoners. [ 70 ] In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where early combatants were living. The homes of rural residents were besides pillaged. [ 70 ] The 2007 report [ 70 ] of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required. Civilians are victims of perennial acts of ferocity done by the FLN. The latter besides recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high gear. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an pressing indigence for reform of the judicial system. Genocide, war crimes and crimes against world continued to go unpunished. [ citation needed ] In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the fantan to adopt a law guaranteeing them ‘provisional exemption ‘ from halt. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of external humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity. [ 70 ] even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN has been unable to obtain the probationary unsusceptibility. On 17 April 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The burundi army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, with the mediation of Charles Nqakula, South Africa ‘s Minister for Safety and Security. This was the beginning directly meet since June 2007. Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a deputation to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations. [ 71 ] Refugee camps started closing down and many refugees have returned. The economy of the nation is shatter – as of 2011 Burundi has one of the lowest per caput gross incomes in the worldly concern. With the return of refugees, amongst others, property conflicts have started. [ citation needed ] The UN has attempted to evaluate the impingement of its peace-building initiatives. In the early 2010s, the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration platform by counting the issue of arms that had been collected, given the prevalence of arms in the nation. however, these evaluations failed to include date from local populations, which are meaning in shock evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives. [ 72 ] As of 2012, Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions, including the mission to Somalia against Al-Shabaab militants. [ 73 ] In 2014, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established, initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018. [ 74 ] [ 75 ]

2015 unrest [edit ]

In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third base term in office. [ 76 ] Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third terminus in office but the nation ‘s constitutional court agreed with the President ( although some of its members had fled the nation at the time of its vote ). [ 77 ] An attempted coup d’état on 13 May failed to depose Nkurunziza. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] He returned to Burundi, began purging his politics, and arrested respective of the coup d’etat leaders. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] Following the attempted coup, protests however continued and over 100,000 people had fled the state by 20 May causing a humanitarian emergency. There are reports of proceed and far-flung abuses of human rights, including improper killings, distortion, disappearances, and restrictions on freedom of expression. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Despite calls by the United Nations, the African Union, the United States, France, South Africa, Belgium, and assorted other governments, the ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June, but these were boycotted by the enemy. On 30 September 2016, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33/24. Its mandate is to “ conduct a exhaustive probe into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015, to identify allege perpetrators and to formulate recommendations. ” [ 87 ] On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations. It further stressed that, “ The burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry, despite the Commission ‘s repeat requests and initiatives. ” [ 88 ] The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions, acts of agony and barbarous, cold or degrading treatment, extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, rape and other forms of intimate violence. ” [ 88 ]

2018 to present [edit ]

In a constituent referendum in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08 % to approve an amend constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in ability until 2034. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] however, much to the storm of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 general election. [ 91 ] On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a campaigner who was hand-pick as Nkurunziza ‘s successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45 % of the vote. [ 92 ] curtly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac halt, at the age of 55. [ 91 ] There was some meditation that his death was COVID-19 relate, though this is unconfirmed. [ 93 ] As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the united states of the national fabrication, led the government until Ndayishimiye ‘s inauguration on 18 June 2020. [ 91 ] [ 92 ] In December 2021, a large prison fire killed dozens. [ 94 ]

government [edit ]

Burundi ‘s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic democracy based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the pass of state and head of politics. There are presently 21 register parties in Burundi. [ 17 ] On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup drawing card Pierre Buyoya established a constitution, [ 18 ] which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party contest. [ 19 ] Six years late, on 6 June 1998, the united states constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly ‘s seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional politics in 2000. [ 20 ] Burundi ‘s legislative arm is a bicameral forum, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38 % of seats, and 10 % of the forum controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats were controlled by other parties. Burundi ‘s fundamental law mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60 % Hutu, 40 % Tutsi, and 30 % female members, vitamin a well as three Batwa members. [ 17 ] Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five-year terms. [ 95 ] The Transitional Senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for early presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi ‘s constitution, 30 % of Senate members must be female. Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi ‘s provinces and communes. [ 17 ] For each of Burundi ‘s eighteen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One terminus for the Transitional Senate is five years. [ 95 ] together, Burundi ‘s legislative branch elect the President to a five-year condition. [ 95 ] Burundi ‘s president of the united states appoints officials to his Council of Ministers, which is besides separate of the administrator ramify. [ 20 ] The president can besides pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers. [ 17 ] Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi ‘s legislature. The president besides chooses two vice-presidents. [ 95 ] Following the 2015 election, the President of Burundi was Pierre Nkurunziza. The first Vice-president was Therence Sinunguruza, and the second Vice-president was Gervais Rufyikiri. [ 96 ] On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a campaigner who was hand-pick as Nkurunziza ‘s successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45 % of the vote. soon after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55. As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the home assembly, led the politics until Ndayishimiye ‘s inauguration on 18 June 2020. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] The Cour Suprême ( Supreme Court ) is Burundi ‘s highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as discriminative courts in each of Burundi ‘s provinces equally well as 123 local tribunals. [ 20 ]

embassy of Burundi in Brussels

Human rights [edit ]

Burundi ‘s government has been repeatedly criticised by human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch [ 99 ] for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist Jean-Claude Kavumbagu for issues related to his report. Amnesty International ( AI ) named him a prisoner of conscience and called for his “ immediate and categoric exhaust. ” In April 2009, the government of Burundi changed the police to criminalise homosexuality. Persons found guilty of consensual same-sex relations risk two to three years in prison and a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 burundian francs. [ 100 ] Amnesty International has condemned the action, calling it a rape of Burundi ‘s obligations under external and regional homo rights law, and against the constitution, which guarantees the correct to privacy. [ 101 ] Burundi officially left the International Criminal Court ( ICC ) on 27 October 2017, the first country in the worldly concern to do so. [ 102 ] The move came after the UN accused the state of diverse crimes and human rights violations, such as extrajudicial killings, torture and intimate ferocity, in a September 2017 report. [ 102 ] The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted. [ 103 ] [ 104 ]

Subdivisions [edit ]

Burundi is divided into 18 provinces, [ 105 ] 117 communes, [ 17 ] and 2,638 collines ( hills ). [ 106 ] Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries. In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces, Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie. [ 16 ] The newest province, Rumonge, was created on 26 March 2015 from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi. [ 107 ]

geography [edit ]

Map of Burundi . Deforestation South of Bubanzi One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate. Burundi is a depart of the Albertine Rift, the western annex of the East african Rift. The country lies on a rolling tableland in the kernel of Africa. Burundi is bordered by Rwanda to the union, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. It lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests, Central Zambezian miombo woodlands, and Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic ecoregions. [ 109 ] The average elevation of the central tableland is 1,707 molarity ( 5,600 foot ), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest top out, Mount Heha at 2,685 m ( 8,810 foot ), [ 110 ] lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital, Bujumbura. The informant of the Nile River is in Bururi state, and is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River. [ 111 ] [ clarification needed ] Lake Victoria is besides an important water reference, which serves as a fork to the Kagera River. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika, located in much of Burundi ‘s southwestern corner. [ 114 ] There are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwesterly ( a humble region of rain forest, adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda ), Ruvubu National Park to the northeast ( along the Rurubu River, besides known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu ). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations. [ 115 ]

wildlife [edit ]

economy [edit ]

A proportional representation of Burundi exports, 2019 Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an developing manufacture sector. The economy is predominantly agrarian, accounting for 50 % of GDP in 2017 [ 116 ] and employing more than 90 % of the population. Subsistence agribusiness accounts for 90 % of agribusiness. [ 117 ] Burundi ‘s primary exports are coffee bean and tea, which account for 90 % of foreign exchange earnings, though exports are a relatively little plowshare of GDP. other agrarian products include cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, bananas, bitter cassava ( tapioca ) ; beef, milk and hides. even though subsistence grow is highly relied upon, many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves. This is ascribable to bombastic population growth and no coherent policies governing land possession. In 2014, the modal farm size was about one acre. Burundi is one of the world ‘s poor countries, owing in part to its landlocked geography, [ 8 ] poor legal system, miss of economic freedom, lack of access to education and the proliferation of HIV/AIDS. approximately 80 % of Burundi ‘s population lives in poverty. [ 118 ] Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the twentieth century, [ 37 ] and according to the World Food Programme, 56.8 % of children under historic period five suffer from chronic malnutrition. [ 119 ] Burundi ‘s export earnings – and its ability to pay for imports – rests primarily on upwind conditions and international coffee and tea prices . graphic word picture of Burundi ‘s product exports in 28 colour-coded categories in 2009. The purchasing might of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation. As a consequence of deepening poverty, Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Foreign help represents 42 % of Burundis national income, the second highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009, which should boost its regional barter ties, and besides in 2009 received $ 700 million in debt easing. Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with changing rules. [ 8 ] Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor people levels of satisfaction with biography ; the World Happiness Report 2018 rated them the universe ‘s least happy in 2018. [ 27 ] [ 120 ]
Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika. Some of Burundi ‘s natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper and platinum. [ 121 ] Besides department of agriculture, other industries include : assembly of import components ; public works construction ; food action and idle consumer goods such as blankets, shoes and soap. In regards to telecommunications infrastructure, Burundi is ranked 2nd to final in the World Economic Forum ‘s Network Readiness Index ( NRI ) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country ‘s data and communication technologies. Burundi ranked count 147 overall in the 2014 NRI rank, down from 144 in 2013. [ 122 ] lack of access to fiscal services is a serious problem for the majority of the population, peculiarly in the densely populated rural areas : only 2 % of the sum population holds bank accounts, and fewer than 0.5 % manipulation bank lending services. Microfinance, however, plays a larger role, with 4 % of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions – a larger contribution of the population than that reached by bank and postal services combined. 26 licensed microfinance institutions ( MFIs ) offer savings, deposits and short- to medium-term citation. dependence of the sector on donor aid is limited. [ 123 ] Burundi is function of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East african Federation. Economic increase in Burundi is relatively firm but Burundi is still behind neighbor countries. [ 124 ]

currentness [edit ]

Burundi ‘s currency is the burundian franc ( ISO 4217 code BIF ). It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes, though coins have never been issued in centimes in autonomous Burundi ; centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the belgian Congo franc. monetary Policy is controlled by the central trust, Bank of the Republic of Burundi .

transportation [edit ]

Bicycles are a popular means of conveyance in Burundi Burundi ‘s transmit network is limited and underdeveloped. According to a 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index, Burundi is the least globalize of 140 survey countries. [ 125 ] Bujumbura International Airport is the only airport with a pave runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines ( Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways and RwandAir ). Kigali is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura. The state has a road net but as of 2005 less than 10 % of the country ‘s roads were paved and as of 2012 secret busbar companies were the independent operators of buses on the external route to Kigali ; however, there were no bus connections to the early neighbor countries ( Tanzania and the democratic Republic of Congo ). [ 126 ] Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry ( the MV Mwongozo ) to Kigoma in Tanzania. [ 127 ] There is a long-run plan to link the area via rail to Kigali and then ahead to Kampala and Kenya .
Road ecstasy in Burundi

Demographics [edit ]

A group of burundi women rearing goats . Children in Bujumbura, Burundi As of October 2021, Burundi was estimated by the United Nations to have a population of 12,346,893 people, [ 128 ] [ 129 ] compared to only 2,456,000 in 1950. [ 130 ] The population growth rate is 2.5 percentage per class, more than double the median ball-shaped yard, and a burundian womanhood has on average 5.10 children, more than double the international richness rate. [ 131 ] Burundi had the tenth highest total fertility rate in the global, good behind Somalia, in 2021. [ 8 ] many Burundians have migrated to early countries as a resultant role of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 burundi refugees. [ 132 ] Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with merely 13 % of the population living in urban areas in 2013. [ 8 ] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometer ( 753 per sq security service ) is the second gear highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. [ 17 ] approximately 85 % of the population are of Hutu cultural origin, 15 % are Tutsi and fewer than 1 % are autochthonal Twa. [ 22 ] The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English, the latter having been made an extra official language in 2014. [ 133 ]

religion [edit ]

Sources estimate the christian population at 80–90 %, with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60–65 %. Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 15–25 %. An estimate 5 % of the population adheres to traditional autochthonal religious beliefs. Muslims constitute 2–5 %, the majority of whom are Sunnis and live in urban areas. [ 8 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ]

Health [edit ]

Burundi has the severest hunger and undernourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the Global Hunger Index. [ 131 ] The civil war in 1962 put a check on the medical advancements in the country. [ 137 ] Burundi, again, went into a violent hertz in 2015, jeopardising the citizens of Burundi ‘s medical care. [ 138 ] Like many Sub-Saharan Africa countries, Burundi uses autochthonal music in addition to biomedicine. In the 1980s Burundi ‘s health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality dominance and begin fresh research on pharmaceuticals from medicative plants. [ 137 ] At the same time, the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners ( ATRADIBU ) was founded, which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi ( CRPMT ). [ 137 ] The late inflow of international help has supported the make of biomedical health systems in Burundi. however, external aid workers have traditionally stayed away from autochthonal medicine in Burundi. [ 137 ] As of 2015, approximately 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the old age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhea, and malaria. [ 138 ] The current ferocity in Burundi has limited the country ‘s access to medicine and hospital equipment. Burundi ‘s life anticipation, as of 2015, was 60.1 years. [ 139 ] In 2013, Burundi spent 8 % of their GDP on healthcare. [ 139 ] While Burundi ‘s richness rate is 6.1 children per women, the area ‘s mortality pace is 61.9 deaths for every 1,000 survive births. [ 139 ] According to the WHO, the average animation anticipation in the country is 58/62 years. [ 140 ] Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever. [ 139 ]

culture [edit ]

Burundi ‘s acculturation is based on local tradition and the charm of neighbouring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest. Since agrarian is the main industry, a typical burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes, corn, Rice and peas. Due to the expense, kernel is eaten entirely a few times per calendar month. When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gather they drink impeke, a beer, together from a bombastic container to symbolise one. [ 141 ] noteworthy Burundians include the football player Mohammed Tchité and singer Jean-Pierre Nimbona, popularly known as Kidumu ( who is based in Nairobi, Kenya ). Crafts are an authoritative art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weave is a popular craft for local artisans. [ 142 ] other crafts such as masks, shields, statues and pottery are made in Burundi. [ 143 ] Drumming is an important part of the cultural inheritance. The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi, who have performed for over 40 years, are noted for traditional drum using the karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso and ikiranya drums. [ 144 ] Dance much accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some celebrated burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga and the inyagara. [ 143 ]
football in Burundi. The nation ‘s oral custom is strong, relaying history and liveliness lessons through storytelling, poetry and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi. [ 145 ] basketball and lead and playing field are note sports. warlike arts are popular, ampere well. There are five major judo clubs : Club Judo de l’Entente Sportive, in Downtown, and four others throughout the city. [ 146 ] Association football is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are mancala games. Most christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest. [ 147 ] burundi Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July. [ 148 ] In 2005, the burundi government declared Eid al-Fitr, an Islamic vacation, to be a public vacation. [ 149 ]

Media [edit ]

education [edit ]

Carolus Magnus School in Burundi. The school benefits from the political campaign “ Your Day for Africa ” by Aktion Tagwerk. In 2009, the pornographic literacy rate in Burundi was estimated to be 67 % ( 73 % male and 61 % female ), with a literacy rate of 77 % and 76 %, respectively, for men and women between the ages of 15 to 24. [ 150 ] By 2015, this had increased to 85.6 % ( 88.2 % male and 83.1 % female ). [ 151 ] Literacy among adult women has increased by 17 % since 2002. [ 152 ] Burundi ‘s literacy rate is relatively abject due to low school attendance and because literacy in Kirundi only provides access to materials printed in that lyric, though it is higher than many other african countries. Ten percentage of burundian boys are allowed a secondary coil education. [ 153 ] Burundi has one populace university, University of Burundi. There are museums in the cities, such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega. In 2010 a newly elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School, Quebec, Canada. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] As of 2018, Burundi invested the equivalent of 5.1 % of its GDP in education. [ 156 ]

science and engineering [edit ]

Burundi ‘s Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation ( 2013 ) covers the following areas : food engineering ; medical sciences ; energy, mine and department of transportation ; water ; desertification ; environmental biotechnology and autochthonal cognition ; materials science ; mastermind and diligence ; ICTs ; space sciences ; mathematical sciences ; and social and human sciences. With gaze to material sciences, Burundi ‘s publication intensity doubled from 0.6 to 1.2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019, placing it in the top 15 for sub-saharan Africa for this strategic technology. [ 156 ] medical sciences remain the independent focus of research : medical researchers accounted for 4 % of the area ‘s scientists in 2018 but 41 % of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019. [ 156 ] The focus of the Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation ( 2013 ) has been on developing an institutional framework and infrastructure, fostering greater regional and international co-operation and placing skill in society. In October 2014, the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health a center of excellence. Data are unavailable on output signal on nutritional sciences, the establish ‘s sphere of specialization, but between 2011 and 2019, Burundi scientists produced seven articles on each of HIV and tropical catching diseases and a far five on tuberculosis, all focus areas for the Sustainable Development Goals. [ 156 ] The Strategic Plan has besides focused on trail researchers. Researcher density ( in head counts ) grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018. The sum of fund available to each research worker more than doubled from PPP $ 14,310 ( constant 2005 values ) to PPP $ 22,480, since the domestic research attempt has besides risen since 2012, from 0.11 % to 0.21 % of GDP. [ 156 ] Burundi has about tripled its scientific output since 2011 but the pace has not picked up since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. With six scientific publications per million inhabitants, Burundi placid has one of the lowest publication intensities in Central and East Africa. [ 156 ] Some 97.5 % of publications involved foreign co-authorship between 2017 and 2019, with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners. [ 156 ]

See besides [edit ]

Notes [edit ]

1. a b While Gitega has been established as the political capital, Bujumbura is still the seat of the politics and economic capital .

References [edit ]

bibliography [edit ]

far take [edit ]

• Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy
• Allen, J. A.; et al. (2003). Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 1-85743-183-9.
• Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi
• Chrétien, Jean-Pierre The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History
• Daley, Patricia Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region
• Gates, Henry Lewis; Anthony Appiah (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
• Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer Burundi’s Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad
• Jennings, Christian Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness
• Kayoya, Michel My Father’s Footsteps (Sur les traces de mon père) East African Publishing House, 1973
• Kayoya, Michel Entre deux mondes (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide.
• Kidder, Tracy, Strength in What Remains (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US)
• Krueger, Robert; Kathleen Tobin Krueger (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71486-1.
• Melady, Thomas Patrick Burundi: The Tragic Years
• Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi
• Uvin, Peter Life After Violence: A People’s Story of Burundi
• Watt, Nigel Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country
• Weinstein, Warren (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-0962-1. 1st. edition.

Scholia has a country profile for Burundi.

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