Saint Peter – Wikipedia

Apostle of Jesus and 1st pope between 30 AD cashbox 64-68 AD

Saint Peter [ 5 ] ( died between AD 64 and 68 [ 1 ] ), besides known as Simon Peter, Simeon, Simon ( ), Cephas ( [ 6 ] ), or Peter the Apostle, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, and one of the first base leaders of the early church. According to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero. He is traditionally counted as the first bishop of Rome ‍—‌or pope ‍—‌and besides by Eastern Christian custom as the first patriarch of Antioch. The ancient christian churches all venerate Peter as a major ideal and as the founder of the Church of Antioch and the Diocese of Rome, [ 1 ] but differ in their attitudes regarding the authority of his successors. According to Catholic teach, Jesus promised Peter a special position in the Church. [ 7 ]

In the New Testament, Peter appears repeatedly and prominently in all four gospels a well as the Acts of the Apostles. He is the buddy of Saint Andrew, and both brothers were fishermen. The Gospel of Mark in detail was traditionally thought to show the determine of Peter ‘s preach and eyewitness memories. He is besides mentioned, under either the name Peter or Cephas, in Paul ‘s First Letter to the Corinthians and the Epistle to the Galatians. The New Testament besides includes two general epistles, First Peter and Second Peter, that are traditionally attributed to him, but modern scholarship broadly rejects the Petrine authorship of both. [ 8 ] however, there is a growing number of scholars that have resuscitated the Petrine writing of the Petrine epistles. [ 9 ] Outside of the New Testament, several apocryphal books were late attributed to him, in particular the Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Apocalypse of Peter, and Judgment of Peter, although scholars believe these works to be pseudoepigrapha. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]

Names and etymologies [edit ]

The New Testament presents Peter ‘s original list as Simon ( Σίμων Simōn, in Greek ). In only two passages, [ 13 ] his diagnose is rather spelled “ Simeon “ ( Συμεών in Greek ). The variation possibly reflects “ the long-familiar custom among Jews at the prison term of giving the list of a celebrated patriarch or personage of the Old Testament to a male child [ i, Simeon ] along with a similar looking Greek/Roman name [ in this case, Simon ] ”. [ 14 ] He was late given by Jesus the identify Cephas, from Aramaic כֵּיפָא ( Kepha ), literally meaning “ rock ” or “ stone ”. In translations of the Bible from the original Greek, his identify is maintained as Cephas in 9 occurrences in the New Testament, [ 15 ] whereas in the huge majority of mentions ( 156 occurrences in the New Testament ) he is called Πέτρος ( Petros ), from the Greek and Latin discussion for a rock or stone ( petra ) [ 16 ] to which the masculine ending was added, rendered into English as Peter. [ 17 ] The accurate mean of the Aramaic bible is disputed, some saying that its common meaning is “ rock ” or “ crag ”, others saying that it means preferably “ stone ” and, particularly in its application by Jesus to Simon, like a “ jewel ”, but most scholars agree that as a proper name it denotes a rough or sturdy fictional character. [ 18 ] Both meanings, “ rock ” ( jewel or hewn stone ) and “ rock candy ”, are indicated in dictionaries of Aramaic [ 19 ] and Syriac. [ 20 ] Catholic theologian Rudolf Pesch argues that the Aramaic cepha means “ stone, ball, clop, clew ” and that “ rock candy ” is entirely a intension ; that in the Attic Greek petra denotes “ develop rock ‘n’ roll, rough range, cliff, grotto ” ; and that petros means “ little stone, firestone, sling stone, moving boulder ”. [ 21 ] The combined name Σίμων Πέτρος ( Simon Peter ) appears 19 times in the New Testament. In some Syriac documents he is called, in English translation, Simon Cephas. [ 22 ]

biographic information [edit ]

Sources [edit ]

The sources used to reconstruct the life sentence of Peter can be divided in three groups :
In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ‘ ministry. Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. [ 23 ]

Accounts [edit ]

Peter was a jewish fisherman in Bethsaida ( John 1 :44 ). He was named Simon, son of Jonah or John. [ 24 ] The three Synoptic Gospels recount how Peter ‘s mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home in Capernaum ( Matthew 8 :14–17, Mark 1 :29–31, Luke 4 :38 ) ; this passage distinctly depicts Peter as being married or widowed. 1 Corinthians 9 :5 has besides been taken to imply that he was married. [ 25 ]
The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew (from the Maestà), c. 1308–1311 ( from the ), c. 1308–1311 In the Synoptic Gospels, Peter ( then Simon ) was a fisherman along with his brother, Andrew, and the sons of Zebedee, James and John. The Gospel of John besides depicts Peter fish, even after the resurrection of Jesus, in the story of the Catch of 153 fish. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus called Simon and his brother Andrew to be “ fishers of men “ ( Matthew 4:18 – 19, Mark 1 :16–17 ). In the Confession of Peter he proclaims Jesus to be the Christ ( Jewish Messiah ), as described in the three synoptic Gospels : Matthew 16:13–20, Mark 8:27–30 and Luke 9:18–21. It is there, in the area of Caesarea Philippi, that he receives from Jesus the name Cephas ( Aramaic Kepha ), or Peter ( Greek Petros ). A franciscan church is built upon the traditional site of Apostle Peter ‘s house. [ 26 ] In Luke, Simon Peter owns the boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret ( Luke 5 :3 ). Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions James and John ( Andrew is not mentioned ) by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. immediately after this, they follow him ( Luke 5 :4–11 ). The Gospel of John gives a comparable history of “ The first Disciples ” ( John 1 :35–42 ). In John, the readers are told that it was two disciples of John the Baptist ( Andrew and an nameless disciple ) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the “ Lamb of God “ and then followed Jesus. Andrew then went to his brother Simon, saying, “ We have found the Messiah “, and then brought Simon to Jesus .
Three of the four gospels—Matthew, Mark and John—recount the report of Jesus walking on water. Matthew additionally describes Peter walking on water for a moment but beginning to sink when his religion wavers ( Matthew 14 :28–31 ). At the begin of the last Supper, Jesus washed his disciples ‘ feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when Jesus told him : “ If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me ”, Peter replied : “ Lord, not my feet only, but besides my hands and my head ” ( John 13 :2–11 ). The wash of feet is frequently repeated in the service of idolize on Maundy Thursday by some christian denominations. The three Synoptic Gospels all mention that, when Jesus was arrested, one of his companions cut off the ear of a handmaid of the High Priest of Israel ( Matthew 26 :51, Mark 14 :47, Luke 22 :50 ). The Gospel of John besides includes this event and names Peter as the fencer and Malchus as the victim ( John 18 :10 ). Luke adds that Jesus touched the ear and miraculously healed it ( Luke 22 :49–51 ). This bring around of the handmaid ‘s ear is the last of the 37 miracles attributed to Jesus in the Bible. Simon Peter was doubly arraigned, with John, before the Sanhedrin and immediately defied them ( Acts 4 :7–22, Acts 5 :18–42 ). After receiving a vision from God that allowed for the eat of previously dirty animals, Peter takes a missionary travel to Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea ( Acts 9 :32– Acts 10 :2 ), becoming implemental in the decision to evangelise the Gentiles ( Acts 10 ). Simon Peter applied the message of the vision on clean animals to the gentiles and follows his merging with Cornelius the Centurion by claiming that “ God shows no partiality ” ( Acts 10 ). [ 27 ] According to the Acts of the Apostles, Peter and John were sent from Jerusalem to Samaria ( Acts 8 :14 ). Peter/Cephas is mentioned briefly in the open chapter of one of the Pauline epistles, Epistle to the Galatians, which mentions a trip by Paul the Apostle to Jerusalem where he meets Peter ( Galatians 1 :18 ). Peter features again in Galatians, fourteen years late, when Paul ( immediately with Barnabas and Titus ) returned to Jerusalem ( Galatians 2 :7-9 ). When Peter came to Antioch, Paul opposed Peter to his face “ because he [ Peter ] was in the improper ” ( Galatians 2 :11 ). [ 28 ]
Acts 12 narrates how Peter, who was in Jerusalem, was put into prison by Agrippa I ( A.D. 42–44 ), but was rescued by an angel. After his liberation Peter left Jerusalem to go to “ another locate ” ( Acts 12:1–18 ). Concerning Peter ‘s subsequent activity there is no promote connected data from the extant sources, although there are curtly notices of certain person episodes of his late biography. [ 1 ]

beginning leader of the early church [edit ]

The Gospels and Acts portray Peter as the most big apostle, though he denied Jesus three times during the events of the crucifixion. According to the Christian custom, Peter was the first gear disciple to whom Jesus appeared, balancing Peter ‘s denial and restoring his position. Peter is regarded as the first drawing card of the early church, though he was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, “ the Brother of the Lord ”. Because Peter was the first to whom Jesus appeared, the leadership of Peter forms the footing of the Apostolic sequence and the institutional baron of orthodoxy, as the heir of Peter, and he is described as “ the rock ” on which the church will be built .

situation among the apostles [edit ]

St. Peter Preaching the Gospel in the Catacombs by by Jan Styka Peter is always listed first among the Twelve Apostles in the gospels [ 34 ] and in the Book of Acts. [ 35 ] He is besides frequently mentioned in the gospels as forming with James the Elder and John a special group within the Twelve Apostles, show at incidents at which the others were not give, such as at the Transfiguration of Jesus, [ 36 ] at the lift of Jairus ‘ daughter [ 37 ] and at the agony in the Garden of Gethsemane. [ 38 ] Peter much confesses his faith in Jesus as the Messiah. Peter is often depicted in the gospels as spokesman of all the Apostles. [ 39 ] John Vidmar, a Catholic scholar, writes : “ catholic scholars agree that Peter had an authority that superseded that of the other apostles. Peter is their spokesman at several events, he conducts the election of Matthias, his opinion in the argument over converting Gentiles was all-important, etc. [ 40 ] The generator of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter as the cardinal digit within the early Christian community. [ note 1 ]

Denial of Jesus by Peter [edit ]

The tears of Saint Peter, by , by El Greco, recently 16th century The Denial of Saint Peter, by , by Caravaggio, c. 1610 All four canonic gospels recount that, during the death Supper, Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the follow dawn ( “ before the cock crows doubly ” in Mark ‘s account ). The three Synoptics and John describe the three denials as follows :

1. A denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon Peter, saying that he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but not in all manuscripts), “the rooster crowed”. Only Luke and John mention a fire by which Peter was warming himself among other people: according to Luke, Peter was “sitting”; according to John, he was “standing”.
2. A denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away from the firelight, but the same servant girl (per Mark) or another servant girl (per Matthew) or a man (per Luke and also John, for whom, though, this is the third denial) told the bystanders he was a follower of Jesus. According to John, “the rooster crowed”. The Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still warming himself at the fire, and gives as the occasion of the third denial a claim by someone to have seen him in the garden of Gethsemane when Jesus was arrested.
3. A denial came when Peter’s Galilean accent was taken as proof that he was indeed a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, “the rooster crowed”. Matthew adds that it was his accent that gave him away as coming from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that, rather than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual. John does not mention the Galilean accent.

In the Gospel of Luke is a phonograph record of Christ telling Peter : “ Simon, Simon, behold, Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat : but I have prayed for thee, that thy religion fail not : and when thousand art converted, strengthen thy brethren. ” In a evocative [ 45 ] scene in John ‘s epilogue, Peter affirms three times that he loves Jesus .

resurrection appearances [edit ]

Paul ‘s First Epistle to the Corinthians [ 46 ] contains a list of resurrection appearances of Jesus, the first of which is an appearance to Peter. [ 47 ] here, Paul apparently follows an early tradition that Peter was the beginning to see the resurrect Christ, [ 23 ] which, however, did not seem to have survived to the time when the gospels were written. [ 48 ] In John ‘s gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the empty grave, although the women and the beloved disciple see it before him. [ Jn. 20:1–9 ] In Luke ‘s account, the women ‘s report of the empty grave is dismissed by the apostles, and Peter is the only one who goes to check for himself, running to the grave. After seeing the graveclothes he goes home, obviously without informing the other disciples. [ Lk. 24:1–12 ] In the final chapter of the Gospel of John, Peter, in one of the resurrection appearances of Jesus, three times affirmed his love for Jesus, balancing his double denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter ‘s status. The church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the Sea of Galilee is seen as the traditional web site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and, according to Catholic custom, established Peter ‘s supreme legal power over the christian church .

leader of the early church [edit ]

The Liberation of St. Peter from prison by an angel, by from prison by an angel, by Giovanni Lanfranco, 1620–21 Peter was considered along with James the Just and John the Apostle as pillars of the Church. [ 49 ] Legitimised by Jesus ‘ appearance, Peter assumed leadership of the group of early followers, forming the Jerusalem ekklēsia mentioned by Paul. He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, “ the Brother of the Lord. ” According to Lüdemann, this was due to the discussions about the strictness of adhesiveness to the jewish Law, when the more conservative faction of James the Just [ 50 ] took the overhand over the more big position of Peter, who soon lost influence. [ bill 2 ] According to Dunn, this was not an “ usurpation of world power ”, but a consequence of Peter ‘s involvement in missionary activities. The early church historian Eusebius ( c. AD 325 ) records Clement of Alexandria ( c. AD 190 ) as saying :

For they say that Peter and James ( the Greater ) and John after the rise of our Saviour, as if besides preferred by our Lord, strove not after honor, but chose James the Just bishop of Jerusalem. [ 53 ]

James D. G. Dunn proposes that Peter was a “ bridge-man ” between the opposing views of Paul and James the Just [ italics original ] :

For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man ( pontifex maximus ! ) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most outstanding leading figures in first-century Christianity, were besides much identified with their respective “ brands ” of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this finical spectrum .Dunn 2001, p. 577, Ch. 32

Paul affirms that Peter had the special tear of being apostle to the Jews, merely as he, Paul, was apostle to the Gentiles. Some argue James the Just was bishop of Jerusalem whilst Peter was bishop of Rome and that this position at times gave James privilege in some ( but not all ) situations .

“ Rock ” dialogue [edit ]

In a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples ( Matthew 16:13–19 ), Jesus asks, “ Who do people say that the Son of Man is ? ” The disciples give respective answers. When he asks “ Who do you say that I am ? “, Simon Peter answers, “ You are the Messiah, the Son of the surviving God. ” Jesus then declares :

Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Cephas ( Peter ) ( Petros ), and on this rock ( petra ) I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; whatever you bind on land will be bound in eden, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven .

A common watch of Peter is provided by Jesuit Father Daniel J. Harrington, who suggests that Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability. While he was one of the beginning disciples called and was the spokesman for the group, Peter is besides the exemplar of “ little faith ”. In Matthew 14, Peter will soon have Jesus say to him, “ O you of little religion, why did you doubt ? “, and he will finally deny Jesus three times. therefore, in alight of the Easter event, Peter became an exemplar of the forgive sinner. [ 54 ] Outside the Catholic Church, opinions vary as to the interpretation of this passage with deference to what assurance and duty, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter. [ 55 ] In the Eastern Orthodox Church this passage is interpreted as not implying a special prominence to the person of Peter, but to Peter ‘s military position as representative of the Apostles. The son used for “ rock ” ( petra ) grammatically refers to “ a small detachment of the massive ledge ”, [ 56 ] not to a massive boulder. frankincense, Orthodox Sacred Tradition understands Jesus ‘ words as referring to the apostolic religion .
Petros had not previously been used as a mention, but in the Greek-speaking world it became a popular Christian appoint, after the tradition of Peter ‘s prominence in the early on christian church service had been established .

papal sequence [edit ]

The leadership of Peter forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional baron of orthodoxy, as the successor of Peter, and is described as “ the rock ” on which the church will be built. Catholics refer to him as chief of the Apostles, [ 57 ] as do the Eastern Orthodox [ 58 ] and the Oriental Orthodox. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] In Coptic Orthodox Church liturgy, he is once referred to as “ big ” or “ head ” among the Apostles, a entitle shared with Paul in the text ( The Fraction of Fast and Feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria ). Some, including the Orthodox Churches, believe this is not the lapp as saying that the other Apostles were under Peter ‘s orders .

Antioch and Corinth [edit ]

antioch [edit ]

According to the Epistle to the Galatians ( 2:11 ), Peter went to Antioch where Paul rebuked him for following the conservative line regarding the conversion of Gentiles, having meals separate from Gentiles. [ note 3 ] Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been the beginning Patriarch of Antioch. According to the writings of Origen [ 63 ] and Eusebius in his Church History (III, 36) Peter had founded the church of Antioch. [ 64 ] former accounts expand on the brief biblical mention of his visit to Antioch. The Liber Pontificalis ( 9th hundred ) mentions Peter as having served as bishop of Antioch for seven years, and having potentially left his family in the Greek city before his journey to Rome. [ 65 ] Claims of aim rake linage from Simon Peter among the honest-to-god population of Antioch existed in the first century and continue to exist today, notably by certain Semaan families of contemporary Syria and Lebanon. Historians have furnished other testify of Peter ‘s sojourn in Antioch. [ eminence 4 ] The Clementine literature, a group of relate works written in the fourth hundred but believed to contain materials from earlier centuries, relate information about Peter that may come from earlier traditions. One is that Peter had a group of 12 to 16 followers, whom the Clementine writings name. [ 66 ] Another is that it provides an travel guidebook of Peter ‘s route from Caesarea Maritima to Antioch, where he debated his adversary Simon Magus ; during this journey he ordained Zacchaeus as the foremost bishop of Caesarea and Maro as the first bishop of Tripolis. Fred Lapham suggests the route recorded in the Clementine writings may have been taken from an earlier document mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in his Panarion called “ The Itinerary of Peter ”. [ 67 ]

corinth [edit ]

Peter may have visited Corinth, and possibly there existed a party of “ Cephas ”. [ 23 ] First Corinthians suggests that possibly Peter visited the city of Corinth, located at Greece, during their missions. [ 1Cor. 1:12 ] Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, in his Epistle to the Roman Church under Pope Soter ( A.D. 165–174 ), declares that Peter and Paul founded the Church of Rome and the Church of Corinth, and they have lived in Corinth for some meter, and finally in Italy where they found death :

You have thus by such an admonition bounce together the implant of Peter and of Paul at Rome and Corinth. For both of them planted and likewise teach us in our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the lapp time. [ 68 ]

connection to Rome [edit ]

The Apostles Peter and Paul, detail of cupola fresco by Correggio ( 1520–1524 ) In a custom of the early church service, Peter is said to have founded the Church in Rome with Paul, served as its bishop, authored two epistles, and then met calvary there along with Paul .

papacy [edit ]

Nuremberg Chronicle Saint Peter portrayed as a pope in the The Catholic Church speak of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. however, it is besides said that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or evening on his always having been in Rome. [ 69 ] St. Clement of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the great heroes of the faith. [ 23 ]

Coming to Rome [edit ]

New Testament accounts [edit ]

There is no obvious biblical tell that Peter was ever in Rome, but the first epistle of Peter does mention that “ The church service that is at Babylon, elected together with you, saluteth you ; and so doth Marcus my son. ” [ 70 ] It is not certain whether this refers to the actual Babylon or to Rome, for which Babylon was a common nickname at the time, or to the jewish diaspora in general, as a late theory has proposed. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans about AD 57, [ 73 ] he greets some fifty people in Rome by appoint, [ 74 ] but not Peter whom he knew. There is besides no mention of Peter in Rome late during Paul ‘s biennial stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60–62 .

church service Fathers [edit ]

The writings of the first century Church Father Ignatius of Antioch ( c. 35 – c. 107 ) refer to Peter and Paul giving admonitions to the Romans, indicating Peter ‘s presence in Rome. [ 75 ] Irenaeus of Lyons ( c. 130 – c. 202 ) wrote in the second century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop. [ 76 ] clement of Alexandria ( c. 150 – c. 215 ) states that “ Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome (A.D. 190). “ [ 77 ] According to Origen ( 184–253 ) [ 63 ] and Eusebius, [ 64 ] Peter “ after having beginning founded the church at Antioch, went aside to Rome preaching the Gospel, and he besides, after [ preside over ] the church service in Antioch, presided over that of Rome until his death ”. [ 78 ] After presiding over the church in Antioch for a while, Peter would have been succeeded by Evodius [ 79 ] and thereafter by Ignatius, who was a student of John the Apostle. [ 80 ] Lactantius, in his book called Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, written around 318, noted that “ and while Nero reigned, the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and, through the exponent of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles, and, by turning many to the true religion, built up a close and stedfast temple unto the Lord. ” [ 81 ]

Simon Magus [edit ]

Eusebius of Caesarea ( 260/265–339/340 ) relates that when Peter confronts Simon Magus at Judea ( mentioned in Acts 8 ), Simon Magus flees to Rome, where the Romans began to regard him as a idol. According to Eusebius, his luck did not concluding long, since God sent Peter to Rome, and Simon was quenched and immediately destroyed. [ 82 ] According to Jerome ( 327–420 ) : “ Peter went to Rome in the second year of Claudius to overthrow Simon Magus, and held the priestly chair there for twenty-five years until the last, that is the fourteenth, year of Nero. ” [ 83 ] An apocryphal work, the Actus Vercellenses ( seventh hundred ), a Latin textbook preserved in only one manuscript transcript published wide in translation under the title Acts of Peter, sets Peter ‘s confrontation with Simon Magus in Rome. [ 84 ] [ 85 ]

Death and burying [edit ]

crucifixion at Rome [edit ]

In the epilogue [ 86 ] of the Gospel of John, Jesus hints at the death by which Peter would glorify God, saying : “ when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress you and carry you where you do not want to go. ” [ 87 ] This is interpreted by some as a reference book to Peter ‘s crucifixion. [ 45 ] Theologians Donald Fay Robinson and Warren M. Smaltz have suggested that the incident in Acts 12:1-17, [ 88 ] where Peter is “ released by an angel ” and goes to “ another position ”, truly represents an idealized history of his death, which may have occurred in a Jerusalem prison deoxyadenosine monophosphate early as AD 44. [ 89 ] The Muratorian fragment, dated to the second century AD, notes that the primary eyewitness to Acts, Luke, was not present at Peter ‘s death. [ 90 ] early Church tradition says that Peter probably died by crucifixion ( with arms outstretched ) at the fourth dimension of the Great Fire of Rome in the year 64. This took identify three months after the black fire that destroyed Rome for which the emperor ( Nero ) wished to blame the Christians. This “ dies imperii ” ( regnal day anniversary ) was an important one, precisely ten years after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was “ as common ” accompanied by much bloodshed. traditionally, Roman authorities sentenced him to death by crucifixion at Vatican Hill. [ 1 ] In accord with the apocryphal Acts of Peter, he was crucified forefront down. [ 91 ] Tradition besides locates his burial place where the Basilica of Saint Peter was later built, immediately beneath the Basilica ‘s high altar .
Pope Clement I ( d. 99 ), in his Letter to the Corinthians ( Chapter 5 ), written c. 80–98, speaks of Peter ‘s martyrdom in the pursuit terms : “ Let us take the baronial examples of our own genesis. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto end. …Peter, through unfair envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at stopping point, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the target of glory due to him. ” [ 92 ] The apocryphal Acts of Peter ( 2nd penny. ) ( Vercelli Acts XXXV ) [ 93 ] is the informant for the tradition about the celebrated Latin phrase “ Quo vadis, Domine ? “ ( in greek : Κύριε, ποῦ ὑπάγεις “ Kyrie, pou hypageis ? “ ), which means “ Where are you going, Lord ? ”. According to the history, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid performance meets the rise Jesus. In the Latin translation, Peter asks Jesus, “ Quo vadis ? ” He replies, “ Romam eo iterum crucifigi” ( “ I am going to Rome to be crucified again ” ). Peter then gains the courage to continue his ministry and returns to the city, where he is martyred. This fib is commemorated in an Annibale Carracci paint. The church service of Quo Vadis, near the Catacombs of Saint Callistus, contains a stone in which Jesus ‘ footprints from this event are purportedly preserved, though this was apparently an ex-voto from a pilgrim, and indeed a copy of the original housed in the Basilica of St Sebastian. The death of Peter is attested to by Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 240 ) at the conclusion of the second century in his Prescription Against Heretics, noting that Peter endured a mania like his Lord ‘s. [ 94 ] In his work Scorpiace 15, he besides speaks of Peter ‘s crucifixion : “ The budding religion Nero beginning made bally in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the thwart. ” [ 95 ] Origen ( 184–253 ) in his Commentary on the Book of Genesis III, quoted by Eusebius of Caesaria in his Ecclesiastical History (III, 1), said : “ Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer. ” [ 57 ] The Cross of St. Peter inverts the Latin cross based on this refusal, and on his claim of being unworthy to die the same way as his Saviour. [ 96 ] Peter of Alexandria ( d. 311 ), who was bishop of Alexandria and died around AD 311, wrote an epistle on Penance, in which he says : “ Peter, the first of the apostles, having been much apprehended and thrown into prison, and treated with shame, was last of all crucified at Rome. ” [ 97 ] Jerome ( 327–420 ) wrote that “ at Nero ‘s hands Peter received the pennant of martyrdom being nailed to the cross with his promontory towards the grind and his feet raised on high, asserting that he was despicable to be crucified in the like manner as his Lord. ” [ 83 ]

burying [edit ]

catholic custom holds that Peter ‘s anatropous crucifixion occurred in the gardens of Nero, with the burying in Saint Peter ‘s grave nearby. [ 98 ] Caius in his Disputation Against Proclus ( A.D. 198 ), preserved in share by Eusebius, relates this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited : “ I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are bequeath to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this church. ” [ 99 ] According to Jerome, in his work De Viris Illustribus ( A.D. 392 ), “ Peter was buried at Rome in the Vatican near the exultant manner where he is venerated by the unharmed earth. ” [ 83 ] In the early fourth hundred, the Emperor Constantine I decided to honour Peter with a large basilica. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] Because the accurate placement of Peter ‘s burying was thus securely fixed in the impression of the Christians of Rome, the church to house the basilica had to be erected on a site that was not commodious to construction. The gradient of the Vatican Hill had to be excavated, even though the church could much more well have been built on flush anchor merely slightly to the south. There were besides moral and legal issues, such as demolishing a cemetery to make room for the build. The focal point of the Basilica, both in its master form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter ‘s burial .

Relics [edit ]

According to a letter quoted by Bede, Pope Vitalian sent a traverse hold filings said to be from Peter ‘s chains to the queen of Oswy, Anglo-Saxon King of Northumbria in 665, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as unspecified relics of the saint to the king. [ 102 ] In 1950, human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. Peter ‘s Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter. [ 103 ] An attack to contradict these claims was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe to be Saint Peter ‘s grave in Jerusalem. [ 104 ] however along with this supposed grave in Jerusalem bearing his previous name Simon ( but not Peter ), grave bearing the names of Jesus, Mary, James, John, and the rest of the apostles were besides found at the lapp excavation—though all these names were very common among Jews at the time. In the 1960s, items from the excavations beneath St Peter ‘s Basilica were re-examine, and the bones of a male person were identified. A forensic interrogation found them to be a male of about 61 years of senesce from the first hundred. This caused Pope Paul VI in 1968 to announce them most probable to be the relics of Apostle Peter. [ 105 ] On 24 November 2013, Pope Francis presented character of the relics, consisting of bone fragments, for the first clock in public during a Mass celebrated in St. Peter ‘s Square. [ 106 ] On 2 July 2019, it was announced that Pope Francis had transferred nine of these bone fragments within a bronze reliquary to Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. [ 107 ] Bartholomew, who serves as read/write head of the Eastern Orthodox Christian church, described the gesture as “ audacious and bluff. ” [ 107 ] Pope Francis has said his decisiveness was born “ out of entreaty ” and intended as a sign of the ongoing exercise towards communion between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. [ 108 ] The majority of Saint Peter ‘s remains, however, are inactive preserved in Rome, under the high altar of St. Peter ’ mho Basilica. [ 109 ]

Epistles of Peter – Rome as Babylon [edit ]

Church tradition ascribes the epistles First and Second Peter to the Apostle Peter, as does the text of Second Peter itself, an attribution rejected by scholarship. First Peter [ 110 ] implies the generator is in “ Babylon ”, which has been held to be a gull reference book to Rome. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] [ 113 ] early Church tradition reports that Peter wrote from Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea states :

clement of Alexandria in the sixth [ book ] of the Hypotyposeis cites the fib, and the bishop of Hierapolis named Papias joins him in testifying that Peter mentions Mark in the first gear epistle, which they say he composed in Rome herself, and that he indicates this, calling the city more figuratively Babylon by these : “ She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you greetings and so does my son Mark. ( 1 Pet 5:13 ) ” [ 114 ]

If the reference is to Rome, it is the only biblical address to Peter being there. many scholars regard both First and Second Peter as not having been authored by him, partially because early parts of the Acts of the Apostles seem to describe Peter as an illiterate fisherman. [ 8 ] [ 115 ] Most biblical scholars [ 116 ] [ 117 ] believe that “ Babylon ” is a metaphor for the heathen Roman Empire at the time it persecuted Christians, before the Edict of Milan in 313 : possibly specifically referencing some aspect of Rome ‘s rule ( ferociousness, greed, paganism ). Although some scholars recognize that Babylon is a metaphor for Rome, they besides claim that Babylon represents more than the Roman city of the beginning hundred. Craig Koester says outright that “ the prostitute [ of Babylon ] is Rome, however more than Rome ”. [ 118 ] It “ is the Roman imperial world, which in turn represents the worldly concern alienated from God ”. [ 119 ] At that time in history, the ancient city of Babylon was no longer of any importance. E.g., Strabo wrote, “ The greater separate of Babylon is so abandon that one would not hesitate to say … the Great City is a great desert. ” [ 120 ] Another theory is that “ Babylon ” refers to the Babylon in Egypt that was an crucial fortress city in Egypt, good union of today ‘s Cairo and this, combined with the “ greetings from Mark ” ( 1 Peter 5:13 ), who may be Mark the Evangelist, regarded as the fall through of the Church of Alexandria ( Egypt ), has led some scholars to regard the First Peter epistle as having been written in Egypt .

scholarly views [edit ]

Some church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero, [ 121 ] [ 122 ] [ 123 ] around AD 65 after the Great Fire of Rome. [ note 5 ] [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Presently, most catholic scholars, [ 126 ] and many scholars in general, [ 127 ] hold the view that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. While accepting that Peter came to Rome and was martyred there, there is no diachronic testify that he held episcopal function there. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ] [ 131 ] [ 132 ] [ note 6 ] According to two across-the-board studies published by the german philologist Otto Zwierlein [ de ] in 2009 [ 134 ] and 2013 respectively, [ 135 ] “ there is not a single nibble of authentic literary attest ( and no archaeological tell either ) that Peter ever was in Rome. ” [ 71 ] [ 136 ] [ note 7 ] clement of Rome ‘s First Letter, a document that has been dated from the 90s to the 120s, is one of the earliest sources adduced in digest of Peter ‘s stay in Rome, but Zwierlein questions the text ‘s authenticity and whether it has any cognition about Peter ‘s life beyond what is contained in the New Testament Acts of the Apostles. [ 71 ] The letter besides does not mention any particular space, merely saying : “ Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the invest of glory due to him ” ( ch. 5 ). [ 141 ] A letter to the Romans attributed to Ignatius of Antioch might imply that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church, [ 23 ] telling the Roman Christians : “ I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did ” ( ch. 4 ), although Zwierlein says he could be merely referring to the Epistles of the Apostles, or their mission work in the city, not a special authority given or bestowed. Zwierlein questions the authenticity of this text file and its traditional date to c. 105–10, saying it may date from the final examination decades of the second hundred alternatively of from the begin. [ 71 ] The ancient historian Josephus describes how roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions, [ 142 ] and it is likely that this would have been known to the generator of the Acts of Peter. The position attributed to Peter ‘s crucifixion is frankincense plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the Acts of Peter. Death, after crucifixion oral sex down, is unlikely to be caused by suffocation, the common “ cause of death in ordinary crucifixion ”. [ 143 ]

Feast days [edit ]

The Roman Martyrology assigns 29 June as the banquet day of both Peter and Paul, without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths. Augustine of Hippo says in his sermon 295 : “ One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their calvary occurred on different days, they were one. ” This is besides the feast of both Apostles in the calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Roman Rite, the fete of the Chair of Saint Peter is celebrated on 22 February, and the anniversary of the commitment of the two Papal Basilicas of Saint Peter ‘s and Saint Paul outside the Walls is held on 18 November. Before Pope John XXIII ‘s revision in 1960, the Roman Calendar besides included on 18 January another feast of the Chair of Saint Peter ( denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February feast was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch ), and on 1 August the feast of Saint Peter in Chains. In the Orthodox Daily Office every Thursday throughout the year is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter. There are besides three feast days in the class which are dedicated to him :
Peter is remembered ( with Paul ) in the Church of England with a Festival on 29 June, Peter the Apostle may be celebrated alone, without Paul, on 29 June. [ 146 ]

primacy of Peter [edit ]

Christians of different theological backgrounds are in disagreement as to the claim meaning of Peter ‘s ministry. For exemplify :

• Catholics view Peter as the first pope. The Catholic Church asserts that Peter’s ministry, conferred upon him by Jesus of Nazareth in the gospels, lays down the theological foundation for the pope’s exercise of pastoral authority over the Church.
• Eastern Orthodox also believe that Peter’s ministry points to an underlying theology wherein a special primacy ought to be granted to Peter’s successors above other Church leaders but see this as merely a “primacy of honor”, rather than the right to exercise pastoral authority.
• Protestant denominations assert that Peter’s apostolic work in Rome does not imply a connection between him and the papacy.

similarly, historians of diverse backgrounds besides offer differing interpretations of the Apostle ‘s presence in Rome .

catholic church service [edit ]

According to Catholic impression, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the first target of honor and authority. besides in Catholic belief, Peter was, as the first base Bishop of Rome, the foremost Pope. Furthermore, they consider every pope to be Peter ‘s successor and the rightful superior of all early bishops. [ 147 ] however, Peter never bore the title of “ Pope ” or “ Vicar of Christ ” in the common sense the Catholic Church considers Peter the first base Pope. [ 148 ] The Catholic Church ‘s recognition of Peter as head of its church service on earth ( with Christ being its celestial head ) is based on its interpretation of two passages from the basic gospels of the New Testament, angstrom well as sacred custom .

John 21:15–17 [edit ]

The first passage is John 21:15-17 which is : “ Feed my lambs … Tend my sheep … feed my sheep ” [ 149 ] ( within the greek it is Ποίμαινε i, to feed and rule [ as a Shepherd ] v. 16, while Βόσκε i, to feed for v.15 & v. 17 ) [ 150 ] —which is seen by Catholics as Christ promising the spiritual domination to Peter. The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 sees in this passage Jesus “ charging [ Peter ] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception ; and consequently of his whole batch, that is, of his own church service ”. [ 147 ]

Matthew 16:18

Read more: David Prowse

[edit ]

The second passage is matthew 16:18 :

I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of eden ; whatever you bind on land will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven .Matthew 16:18–19 (NIV)[151]

etymology [edit ]

In the narrative of the calling of the disciples, Jesus addresses Simon Peter with the greek term Κηφᾶς ( Cephas ), a Hellenized phase of Aramaic ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ( keepa ), which means “ rock ”, [ 152 ] a term that ahead was not used as a proper name :

: ἐμβλέψας αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωάννου, σὺ κληθήσῃ Κηφᾶς ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος. [ 153 ]

Having looked at him, Jesus said, “You are Simon the son of John; you will be called Cephas,” which means Petros (“rock”). — John 1:42

Jesus late alludes to this nickname after Peter declares Jesus to be the Messiah :

: κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω ὅτι σὺ εἶ Πέτρος [ Petros ] καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ [ petra ] οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, καὶ πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς. [ note 8 ]

I also say to you now that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it.Matthew 16:18[157]

The Peshitta Syriac adaptation renders Jesus ‘ words into Aramaic [ 158 ] as follows :

: ܐܳܦ݂ ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁ ܗ݈ܽܘ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܘܥܰܠ ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂

Also I say to you that you are Keepa, and on this keepa I will build my Church, and the gates of Sheol not will subdue it. Matthew 16:18[159]

Paul of Tarsus late uses the appellation Cephas in address to Peter. [ 160 ]

rendition of Matthew 16:18 [edit ]

To better understand what Christ intend, St. Basil elaborates : [ 161 ]

Though Peter be a rock ‘n’ roll, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth them besides upon others. He is the lighter, and however you are the light : he is the Priest, and however he maketh Priests : he is the rock, and he made a rock. — Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matt. v. 14 ; Luke 22:19

In reference to Peter ‘s occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the Fisherman ‘s Ring, which bears an visualize of the enshrine casting his nets from a fish boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope ‘s authority refer to the “ keys of the kingdom of Heaven ” promised to Peter. [ 162 ] The terminology of this “ commission ” of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commission of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isaiah 22:15-23. [ 163 ] Peter is frequently depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian artwork holding a key or a set of keys. In the original Greek the word translated as “ Peter ” is Πέτρος ( Petros ) and that translated as “ rock ” is πέτρα ( petra ), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native Aramaic terminology, he would have used kepha in both instances. [ 164 ] The Peshitta Text and the Old Syriac text consumption the word “ kepha ” for both “ Peter ” and “ rock ‘n’ roll ” in Matthew 16:18. [ 165 ] [ 166 ] John 1:42 says Jesus called Simon “ Cephas ”, as Paul calls him in some letters. [ 167 ] He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brother, i, the apostles. [ 168 ] Peter besides had a leadership function in the early christian church at Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11, and 15. early Catholic Latin and Greek writers ( such as St. John Chrysostom ) considered the “ foundation rock ” as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith ( or the religion of his confession ) symbolically, equally well as seeing Christ ‘s promise to apply more broadly to his twelve apostles and the church at large. [ 169 ] This “ double entail ” rendition is give in the stream catechism of the Catholic Church. [ 170 ] protestant arguments against the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated “ Rock ” in the Matthean passing. They frequently claim that in classical Attic Greek petros ( masculine ) generally meant “ pebble ”, while petra ( feminine ) think of “ boulder ” or “ cliff ”, and consequently, taking Peter ‘s name to mean “ pebble, ” they argue that the “ rock ” in doubt can not have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the religion in Jesus that Peter had just professed. [ 171 ] [ 172 ] These popular-level writings are disputed in similar popular-level Catholic writings. [ 173 ] The New Testament was written in Koiné Greek, not attic Greek, and some authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of petros and petra. so army for the liberation of rwanda from meaning a pebble was the son petros that Apollonius Rhodius, a writer of Koiné Greek of the third hundred B.C., used it to refer to “ a huge round boulder, a severe quoit of Ares Enyalius ; four stalwart youths could not have raised it from the footing even a little ”. [ 174 ]
Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter, by , by Pietro Perugino ( 1481–82 ) The feminine noun petra ( πέτρα in Greek ), translated as rock in the phrase “ on this rock I will build my church ”, is besides used at 1 Cor. 10:4 in describing Jesus Christ, which reads : “ They all ate the same religious food and drank the same apparitional drink ; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ. ” [ 175 ] Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal domination, some protestant scholars say that anterior to the Reformation of the sixteenth century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being good documented as being used in the third hundred by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a “ passionate disagreement ” about baptism and in the fourth hundred by Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a moral of the Arian Controversy for rigid discipline and centralized master. [ 176 ] Their place is that most of the early and chivalric Church interpreted the “ rock ” as being a reference either to Christ or to Peter ‘s faith, not Peter himself. They understand Jesus ‘ comment to have been his affirmation of Peter ‘s testimony that Jesus was the Son of God. [ 177 ] Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a association between Matthew 16:18 and the primacy of Peter and his office, such as tertullian, writing : “ The Lord said to Peter, ‘On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys of the kingdom of eden [ and ] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed in heaven ‘ [ Matt. 16:18–19 ]. … Upon you, he says, I will build my Church ; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church. ” [ 178 ]

Epistles of Paul [edit ]

The church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans about AD 57. [ 73 ] He greets some fifty people in Rome by list, [ 74 ] but not Peter whom he knew. There is besides no mention of Peter in Rome subsequently during Paul ‘s biennial stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60–62. Some church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the predominate of Nero, [ 121 ] [ 122 ] [ 123 ] about AD 64 or 68. [ note 5 ] [ 124 ] [ 125 ]

protestant rejection of Catholic claims [edit ]

other theologically conservative Christians, including confessional Lutherans, besides refute comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no differentiation between the words petros and petra in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of Koine/NT Greek, including the authoritative [ 179 ] Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon, indeed list both words and the passages that give unlike meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that :

We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the beginning pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The like keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the unharmed church of believers in Matthew 18 .[180]

Oscar Cullmann, a Lutheran theologian and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by “ rock ” messiah did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the religion of His followers. He believes the intend of the original Aramaic is very clear : that “ Kepha ” was the Aramaic bible for “ rock ”, and that it was besides the identify by which Christ called Peter. [ 181 ] even, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. He writes : “ In the life sentence of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at big. ” While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in no way specious, he says it can not be used as “ guarantee of the papal succession. ” [ 181 ] Cullmann concludes that while Peter was the original capitulum of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession. [ 181 ] There are early Protestant scholars who besides partially defend the historical Catholic position about “ Rock. ” [ 182 ] Taking a reasonably different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic Koine dialect in which there is no differentiation in meaning between petros and petra. furthermore, even in attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of petros was a smallish “ rock, ” there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus v. 1595, where petros refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, a petros / petra distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic speech in which the give voice might well have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the womanly noun petra could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of Petros as the greek discussion with which to translate Aramaic Kepha. [ 164 ] yet, still early Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact did intend to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continue succession of Peter ‘s imply position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun taute, which allegedly means “ this identical ” or “ this lapp ”, when he refers to the rock on which Jesus ‘ church will be built. He besides uses the greek word for “ and ”, kai. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with kai, the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The irregular rock candy Jesus refers to must then be the lapp rock as the inaugural one ; and if Peter is the first gear rock ‘n’ roll he must besides be the moment. [ 183 ] Unlike Oscar Cullmann, Confessional Lutherans and many early protestant apologists agree that it ‘s meaningless to elaborate the mean of “ Rock ” by looking at the Aramaic lyric. While the Jews spoke largely Aramaic at home, in public they normally spoke Greek. The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in populace were strange, which is why they are noted as such. And most importantly the New Testament was revealed in Koine Greek, not Aramaic. [ 184 ] [ 185 ] [ 186 ] Lutheran historians tied report that the Catholic church service itself did n’t, at least unanimously, esteem Peter as the rock until the 1870s :

Rome ‘s rule for explaining the Scriptures and determining doctrine is the Creed of Pius IV. This Creed binds Rome to explain the Scriptures alone according to the consentaneous accept of the Fathers. In the year 1870 when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16, 18. They had five different interpretations. Seventeen insisted, Peter is the rock. sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said, Peter ‘s faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers as the rock. – And however Rome teach and still teaches that Peter is the rock. [ 187 ]

Eastern Orthodox [edit ]

Icon of Saint Peter, c 1500 The Eastern Orthodox Church regards Apostle Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as “ leading Apostles ”. Another title used for Peter is Coryphaeus, which could be translated as “ Choir-director ”, or go singer. [ 188 ] The church recognizes Apostle Peter ‘s leadership function in the early church, specially in the very early days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any “ princely ” character over his chap Apostles. The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary assurance for Peter with attentiveness to faith or morals. The Orthodox besides hold that Peter did not act as leader at the Council of Jerusalem, but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final decision regarding the non-necessity of circumcision ( and certain prohibitions ) was spelled out by James, the Brother of the Lord ( though Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said, regarding the latter ‘s earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion body of Gentiles ). Eastern and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople sends a deputation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the banquet of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, the representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that “ Rome, as the Church that ‘presides in love ‘ according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch ( “ To the Romans ”, Prologue ), occupied the inaugural place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was consequently the protos among the patriarch, if the Papacy unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this earned run average regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already silent in different ways in the first millennium. ” With respect to Jesus ‘ words to Peter, “ Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church service ”, the Orthodox halt Christ is referring to the confession of religion, not the person of Peter as that upon which he will build the church service. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original Septuagint uses the womanly demonstrative pronoun when he says “ upon this rock ‘n’ roll ” ( ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ ) ; whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would allegedly have used the masculine. [ 189 ]

Syriac Orthodox Church [edit ]

The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a theological interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were amply convinced of the unique function of Peter in the primitive Christian community. Ephrem, Aphrahat and Maruthas who were supposed to have been the best exponents of the early Syriac tradition unambiguously acknowledge the office of Peter. The Syriac Fathers, following the rabbinical tradition, call Jesus “ Kepha ” for they see “ rock candy ” in the Old Testament as a messianic symbol ( yet the Old Maronite Syriacs of Lebanon still refer to Saint Peter as “ Saint Simon the Generous ” or Simon Karam ” ). When Christ gave his own name “ Kepha ” to Simon he was giving him engagement in the person and office of Christ. messiah who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief sheepherder in his target and gave him the very name Kepha and said that on Kepha he would build the Church. Aphrahat shared the common Syriac tradition. For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the justly to share the name. The person who receives person else ‘s name besides obtains the rights of the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. He wrote : “ Jesus son of Nun set up the stones for a witness in Israel ; Jesus our Saviour called Simon Kepha Sarirto and set him as the faithful witness among nations. ” again he wrote in his comment on Deuteronomy that Moses brought forth water from “ rock ” ( Kepha ) for the people and Jesus sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations. God accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called him Kepha. When he speaks about the transfiguration of Christ he calls him Simon Peter, the foundation of the Church. Ephrem besides shared the same view. The armenian translation of De Virginitate records that Peter the rock ‘n’ roll shunned honor. A mimro of Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the importance of Peter. Both Aphrahat and Ephrem represent the authentic custom of the syrian Church. The unlike orders of liturgies used for sanctification of Church buildings, marriage, ordination, et cetera, unwrap that the primacy of Peter is a character of living religion of the Church. [ 190 ]

New Apostolic Church [edit ]

The New Apostolic Church, which believes in the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first Chief Apostle .

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints [edit ]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Peter was the first drawing card of the early Christian church after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. While the Church accepts papal succession from Peter, it rejects papal successors as illegitimate. Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, recorded in multiple revelations that the resurrect Peter appeared to him and Oliver Cowdery in 1829, near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, in ordain to bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a restoration of priesthood agency. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] In interpreting Matthew 16:13–19, latter-day Saint drawing card Bruce R. McConkie stated, “ The things of God are known lone by the power of his liveliness, ” [ 193 ] and “ that which the world calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of disclosure. ” [ 194 ] In his April 1981 cosmopolitan conference address, McConkie identified the rock of which Jesus spoke as the rock of revelation : “ There is no early foundation upon which the Lord could build His church and kingdom. … revelation : pure, arrant, personal revelation—this is the rock ! ” [ 195 ]

Non-Christian views [edit ]

judaism [edit ]

According to an old jewish custom, Simon Peter joined the early on Christians at the decision of the rabbi. Worried that early Christianity ‘s similarity to Judaism would lead people to mistake it for a branch of Judaism, he was chosen to join them. As he moved up in membership, he would be able to lead them into forming their own, distinct belief system. Despite this, he was said to remain a rehearse Jew, and is ascribed with the authorship of the Nishmas prayer. [ 196 ]

islam [edit ]

Muslims consider Jesus a prophet of God. The Qur’an besides speaks of Jesus ‘s disciples but does not mention their names, alternatively referring to them as “ helpers to the prophet of God “. [ 197 ] Muslim exegesis and Qur’an comment, however, names them and includes Peter among the disciples. [ 198 ] An previous custom, which involves the legend of Habib the Carpenter, mentions that Peter was one of the three disciples sent to Antioch to preach to the people there. [ 199 ] Twelver Shia Muslims see a parallel in the trope of Peter to Ali at Muhammad ‘s prison term. They look upon Ali as being the vicegerent, with Muhammad being the prophet ; likewise, they see Peter as the vicegerent, behind Jesus the prophet and Masih. Peter ‘s function as the first proper leader of the church service is besides seen by Shias to be a parallel to their impression in Ali as the first gear caliph after Muhammad. [ 200 ]

Bahá ’ í Faith [edit ]

In the Bahá ’ í Faith “ the primacy of Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, is continue and defended. ” [ 201 ] Bahá ’ ís understand Peter ‘s station as The Rock upon which the church of God would be founded to mean that Peter ‘s belief in Christ as the Son of the live God would serve as the initiation for Christianity, and that upon this belief would the foundation of the church of God, understand as the Law of God, be established. [ 202 ] Peter appears in the writings of Bahá ’ uranium ’ lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá ’ í Faith, often referred to as The rock :

O followers of all religions ! We behold you wandering distraught in the wilderness of mistake. Ye are the pisces of this Ocean ; why do ye withhold yourselves from that which sustaineth you ? Lo, it surgeth before your faces. Hasten unto it from every climate. This is the day whereon the Rock ( Peter ) crieth out and shouteth, and celebrateth the praise of its Lord, the All-Possessing, the Most High, saying : “ Lo ! The Father is come, and that which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled ! ” [ 203 ] -from The Summons of the Lord of Hosts by Bahá ’ u ’ lláh

Writings [edit ]

traditionally, two canonic epistles ( 1 and 2 Peter ) and several apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter .

New Testament [edit ]

Epistles [edit ]

The New Testament includes two letters ( epistles ) ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a eminent quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would normally be expected of an Aramaic -speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and indicate to the miss of references to 2 Peter among the early church service Fathers. Daniel B. Wallace ( who maintains that Peter was the writer ) writes that, for many scholars, “ the exit of authorship is already settled, at least negatively : the apostle Peter did not write this letter ” and that “ the huge bulk of NT scholars adopts this perspective without a lot discussion ”. however, he late states, “ Although a very strong event has been made against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter, we believe it is insufficient. … Taken together, these external and inner arguments powerfully suggest the traditional opinion, namely, that Peter was indeed the author of the second epistle which bears his name. ” [ 204 ] Of the two epistles, the foremost epistle is considered the earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an stenographer. [ 205 ] Jerome explains :

The two Epistles attributed to St. Peter differ in vogue, character, and the construction of the words, which proves that according to the exigencies of the moment St. Peter made use of different interpreters. (Epistle 120 – To Hedibia) [ 206 ]

Some have seen a address to the use of a secretary in the sentence : “ By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye stand ”. [ 1 Pet. 5:12 ] however New Testament scholar Bart D. Ehrman in his 2011 bible Forged states that “ scholars now widely recognize that when the author indicates that he wrote the script ‘through Silvanus ‘, he is indicating not the mention of his repository, but the person who was carrying his letter to the recipients. ” [ 207 ] The letter refers to Roman persecution of Christians, apparently of an official nature. The Roman historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius do both criminal record that Nero persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. christian tradition, for exemplar Eusebius of Caesarea ( History koran 2, 24.1 ), has maintained that Peter was killed in Nero ‘s persecution, and therefore had to assume that the Roman persecution alluded to in First Peter must be this Neronian persecution. [ 205 ] On the other hand, many modern scholars argue that First Peter refers to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor Domitian ( 81–96 ), as the letter is explicitly addressed to Jewish Christians from that region :

Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God ‘s elect, strangers in the earth, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the precognition of God the Father, through the purify employment of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his lineage : deck and peace be yours in abundance. [ 1Pet 1:1–2 ]

Those scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the fourth dimension of Domitian argue that Nero ‘s persecution of Christians was confined to the city of Rome itself, and did not extend to the asian provinces mentioned in 1 Pet 1:1–2. The Second Epistle of Peter, on the other hired hand, appears to have been copied, in character, from the Epistle of Jude, and some modern scholars date its composition arsenic recently as c. 150. Some scholars argue the antonym, that the Epistle of Jude copied Second Peter, while others contend an early on date for Jude and frankincense observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text. [ 205 ] many scholars have noted the similarities between the apocryphal Second Epistle of Clement ( second hundred ) and second Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150 ; there are a few possible references to it that date back to the first hundred or early on second hundred, for example, 1 Clement written in c. AD 96, and the late church service historian Eusebius wrote that Origen had made reference to the epistle before 250. [ 205 ] [ 208 ] Jerome says that Peter “ wrote two epistles which are called Catholic, the second of which, on account of its difference from the first in style, is considered by many not to be by him ” (De Viris Illustribus 1). [ 209 ] But he himself received the epistle, and explained the dispute in style, character, and structure of words by the assumption that Peter used different interpreters in the musical composition of the two epistles ; [ 206 ] and from his time onward the epistle was broadly regarded as a part of the New Testament. even in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and Second Peter was often not included in the biblical canon ; it was merely in the fourth hundred that it gained a firm bridgehead in the New Testament, in a serial of synods. In the East the Syriac Orthodox Church still did not admit it into the canon until the sixth century. [ 205 ]

bell ringer [edit ]

traditionally, the Gospel of Mark was said to have been written by a person named John Mark, and that this person was an adjunct to Peter ; therefore its contentedness was traditionally seen as the closest to Peter ‘s vantage point. According to Eusebius ‘ Ecclesiastical History, Papias recorded this belief from John the presbyter :

Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in claim ordain that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [ of his hearers ], but with no intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord ‘s sayings. Wherefore Mark made no error in therefore writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial worry, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements. [ 210 ]

clement of Alexandria in the fragments of his work Hypotyposes ( A.D. 190 ) preserved and cited by the historian Eusebius in his Church History ( VI, 14 : 6 ) writes that :

As Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were give requested that Mark, who had followed him for a long clock time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it. [ 77 ]

besides Irenaeus wrote about this tradition :

After their ( Peter and Paul ‘s ) excrete, Mark besides, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter. [ 211 ]

Based on these quotes, and on the christian custom, the information in Mark ‘s gospel about Peter would be based on eyewitness material. [ 205 ] The gospel itself is anonymous, and the above passages are the oldest surviving written testimony to its writing. [ 205 ]

Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha [edit ]

The key as symbol of St. Peter There are besides a number of early apocryphal writings, that have been either attributed to or written about Peter. These include :

Non-canonical sayings of Peter [edit ]

Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the gnostic Gospel of Thomas. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a “ just messenger ”. [ 212 ] In the second, Peter asks Jesus to “ make Mary leave us, for females do n’t deserve life. ” [ 213 ] In the Apocalypse of Peter, Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about the fable of the fig tree and the destine of sinners. [ 214 ] In the Gospel of Mary, whose text is largely disconnected, Peter appears to be jealous of “ Mary ” ( credibly Mary Magdalene ). He says to the other disciples, “ Did He in truth speak privately with a womanhood and not openly to us ? Are we to turn about and all listen to her ? Did He prefer her to us ? ” [ 215 ] In reply to this, Levi says, “ Peter, you have always been hot tempered. ” [ 215 ] other noncanonical texts that assign sayings to Peter include the Secret Book of James and the Acts of Peter. In the Fayyum Fragment, which dates to the end of the third century, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before a tittup crows on the trace dawn. The explanation is exchangeable to that of the canonic gospels, specially the Gospel of Mark. It is ill-defined whether the fragment is an abridge version of the accounts in the synoptic gospels, or a generator textbook on which they were based, possibly the apocryphal Gospel of Peter. [ 216 ] The fragmental Gospel of Peter contains an history of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonic gospels. It contains fiddling information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the empty grave, “ I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fish nets and went to the ocean. ” [ 217 ]

iconography [edit ]

Saint Peter sinking on water by by Eero Järnefelt ( 1892 ) The earliest portrait of Peter dates back to the fourth century and was located in 2010. [ 218 ] In traditional iconography, Peter has been shown very systematically since early Christian artwork as an oldish, thick-set man with a “ slightly agonistic ” confront and a shortstop beard, and normally white hair, sometimes balding. He frankincense contrasts with Paul the Apostle who is bald except at the sides, with a longer beard and often black hair, and slender in the font. One exception to this is in Anglo-Saxon art, where he typically lacks a byssus. Both Peter and Paul are shown therefore deoxyadenosine monophosphate early on as the fourth century Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter in Rome. [ 219 ] Later in the Middle Ages his impute is one or two large keys in his hand or hang from his swath, first seen in the early eighth century. [ 220 ] More than many medieval attributes, this continued to be depicted in the Renaissance and afterwards. By the fifteenth century Peter is more likely to be bald on the exceed of his head in the western church, but he continues to have a good drumhead of haircloth in Orthodox icons. The depicting of Saint Peter as literally the keeper of the gates of heaven, popular with modern cartoonists, is not found in traditional religious artwork, but Peter normally heads groups of saints flanking God in heaven, on the right side ( spectator ‘s leave ) of God. narrative images of Peter include several scenes from the Life of Christ where he is mentioned in the gospels, and he is frequently identifiable in scenes where his bearing is not specifically mentioned. normally he stands nearest to Christ. In finical, depictions of the Arrest of Christ normally include Peter cutting off the ear of one of the soldiers. Scenes without Jesus include his classifiable martyrdom, his rescue from prison, and sometimes his trial. In the Counter-Reformation scenes of Peter hearing the stopcock crow for the one-third time became popular, as a representation of repentance and therefore the Catholic sacrament of Confession or Reconciliation .

patronage [edit ]

Medieval mosaic of Saint Peter in the Chora Church, Istanbul Icon of Saint Peter and Paul St. Peter, holding a key and a ledger, depicted in a chivalric Welsh manuscript, 1390–1400

revisionist views [edit ]

L. Michael White suggests that there was a unplayful division between Peter ‘s Jewish Christian party and Paul ‘s Hellenizing party, seen in e.g. the incident at Antioch, which belated Christian accounts have downplayed. [ 221 ] Another revisionist view was developed by supporters of the Christ myth hypothesis, which holds that the digit of Peter is largely a development from some fabulous doorkeeper figures. According to Arthur Drews and G. A. Wells, if there was a historic Peter, then all that is known about him is the brief mentions in Galatians. [ 222 ] [ 223 ]

In artwork [edit ]

In music [edit ]

• Rolland de Lassus, Les Larmes de Saint Pierre, 21 spiritual madrigals (1594).
• Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Le Reniement de Saint Pierre H.424, for soloists, chorus and continuo (date unknown).

See besides [edit ]

Notes [edit ]

1. ^[Acts 1:15] Following this appointment, we see Peter establish the conditions for being an apostle as those who have spent time with Jesus.[41]

   Peter’s authority lent to his role as an adjudicator in conflicts and moral matters. He takes on this role in the case of Ananias and Sapphira and holds them accountable for lying about their alms-giving. Peter passes judgement upon them and they are individually struck dead over the infraction.[42]

   Peter’s role wasn’t always leadership, since he also employed his gifts for taking care of those in need. We see Peter establish these trends by reaching out to the sick and lame. Peter heals two individuals who cannot walk or are paralyzed[43][44] as well as raising Tabitha from the dead.[44] While these acts were miracles of compassion, they also contributed to the number of believers in the early Church. Peter delivering a significant alfresco sermon during Pentecost. According to the lapp book, Peter took the lead in selecting a surrogate for Judas Iscariot Following this date, we see Peter establish the conditions for being an apostle as those who have spent time with Jesus.Peter ‘s authority lend to his character as an adjudicator in conflicts and moral matters. He takes on this character in the lawsuit of Ananias and Sapphira and holds them accountable for lying about their alms-giving. Peter passes judgment upon them and they are individually struck all in over the infraction.Peter ‘s function was n’t constantly leadership, since he besides employed his gifts for taking care of those in indigence. We see Peter establish these trends by reaching out to the disgusted and feeble. Peter heals two individuals who can not walk or are paralyzedas well as raising Tabitha from the dead.While these acts were miracles of compassion, they besides contributed to the number of believers in the early church .

2. ^[51] At the Council of Jerusalem ( c. 50 ), the early church, Paul and the leaders of the Jerusalem church met and decided to embrace Gentile converts. Acts portrays Peter and other leaders as successfully opposing the christian Pharisees who insisted on circumcision
3. ^Hypotyposes (A.D. 190); in which he also says that Cephas was one of the seventy disciples, a man who bore the same name as the apostle Peter, and the one concerning whom Paul says, [When Cephas came to Antioch I withstood him to his face.]”[61][62] Galatians is accepted as authentic by about all scholars. These may be the earliest mentions of Peter to be written. Eusebius of Caesarea, in his “ Historia Ecclesiastica ( I,12:2 ) ” while naming some of the Seventy Disciples of Jesus, says : “ This is the report of Clement, in the fifth ledger of ( A.D. 190 ) ; in which he besides says that Cephas was one of the seventy disciples, a man who bore the same name as the apostle Peter, and the one concern whom Paul says, [ When Cephas came to Antioch I withstood him to his face. ] ”
4. ^ This is provided in Downey, A History of Antioch, pp. 583–586. This testify is accepted by M. Lapidge, among others, see Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School ( Cambridge, 1994 ) p. 16. last, see Finegan, The Archaeology of the New Testament, pp. 63–71 .
5. a b Historians debate whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews anterior to Nerva ‘s change of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not .
6. ^[133]Margherita Guarducci, who led the research leading to the rediscovery of Peter’s reputed tomb in its last stages (1963–1968), concludes Peter died on 13 October AD 64 during the festivities on the occasion of the “dies imperii” of Emperor Nero.
7. ^[137][72] Zwierlein has made a summary of his view available online in English.[138] An edited volume in German was also written in rebuttal against Otto Zwierlein’s views.[139][140] Zwierlein ‘s thesis has caused debate.Zwierlein has made a compendious of his position available on-line in English.An edited bulk in German was besides written in rebuttal against Otto Zwierlein ‘s views .
8. ^ Πέτρᾳ (petra “rock”) is the feminine form of the Greek noun ( Πέτρος) (Petros), which represents the masculine form; the two forms are identical in meaning.[154][155][156] “ rock ” ) is the feminine form of the greek noun ( ) ( ), which represents the masculine form ; the two forms are identical in mean .

References [edit ]

Sources [edit ]

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