David ( ; Hebrew : דָּוִד, modern : Davīd, Tiberian : Dāwīḏ ) [ b ] is described in the Hebrew Bible as a baron of the United Monarchy of Israel and Judah. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] In the Books of Samuel, David is a young shepherd who gains fame by slaying the giant star Goliath, a champion of the Philistines in southern Canaan. David becomes a favorite of the first king of joined Israel, Saul, and forges a airless friendship with Jonathan, a son of Saul. Paranoid that David is seeking to usurp the throne, Saul attempts to kill David, forcing the latter to go into hide and engage as a fugitive for several years. After Saul and Jonathan are both killed in conflict against the Philistines, a 30-year-old David is anointed king over all of Israel and Judah, following which he conquers the city of Jerusalem, establishes it as Israel ‘s capital, and takes the Ark of the Covenant into the city to be the centre-point of worship in the Israelite religion. According to the biblical narrative, David commits adultery with Bathsheba, leading him to arrange the death of her conserve, Uriah the Hittite. David ‘s son Absalom belated schemes to overthrow him and, during the ensuing rebellion, David flees Jerusalem, but returns after Absalom ‘s death to continue his reign over Israel and Judah. He desires to construct a temple to Yahweh in which to family the Ark but, because he shed much rake, [ 8 ] Yahweh denies David the opportunity to do so. David rules as king of the Israelites until his death at long time 70, prior to which he chooses Solomon, a son born to him and Bathsheba, to be his successor rather of Adonijah, his eldest surviving son. He is honored in prophetic literature as an ideal king and the forefather of the future Hebrew Messiah, and many psalms are ascribed to him. [ 9 ]
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Historians of the Ancient Near East agree that David credibly lived around 1000 BCE, but that there is little else that is agreed on about him as a diachronic human body. The Tel Dan stele, a Canaanite-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damascus in the late-9th/early-8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings, contains the Hebrew-language phrase Beit David ( ביתדוד ), which most scholars translate as “ House of David “. The Mesha stele, erected by king Mesha of Moab in the ninth hundred BCE, may besides refer to the “ House of David ”, but this is disputed. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] apart from this, all that is known of David comes from biblical literature, the historicity of which is doubtful, [ 12 ] and there is little detail about David that is concrete and undisputed. David is lavishly represented in post-biblical jewish written and oral custom, and is discussed in the New Testament. The early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus in idle of references to the Hebrew Messiah and to David ; Jesus is described as being descended from David in the gospels of Matthew and of Luke. The biblical character of David has inspired many interpretations in art and literature over centuries. In the Quran and sunnah, David is mentioned as a prophet-king of Allah. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]
biblical account
family
David raises the question of Goliath as illustrated by Josephine Pollard ( 1899 ) The First Book of Samuel and the First Book of Chronicles both identify David as the son of Jesse, the Bethlehemite, the youngest of eight sons. [ 16 ] He besides had at least two sisters, Zeruiah, whose sons all went on to serve in David ‘s army, and Abigail, whose son Amasa went on to serve in Absalom ‘s army, Absalom being one of David ‘s younger sons. [ 17 ] While the Bible does not name his mother, the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet, a daughter of a man named Adael, and the Book of Ruth claims him as the great-grandson of Ruth, the Moabite, by Boaz. [ 18 ] David is described as cementing his relations with assorted political and national groups through marriage. In 1 Samuel 17:25, it states that King Saul had said that he would make whoever killed Goliath a very affluent man, give his daughter to him and declare his father ‘s class nontaxable from taxes in Israel. Saul offered David his oldest daughter, Merab, a marriage which David respectfully declined. [ 20 ] Saul then gave Merab in marriage to Adriel the Meholathite. [ 21 ] Having been told that his younger daughter Michal was in sleep together with David, Saul gave her in marriage to David upon David ‘s payment in Philistine foreskins [ 22 ] ( ancient Jewish historian Josephus lists the dowry as 100 Philistine heads ). [ 23 ] Saul became covetous of David and tried to have him killed. David escaped. then Saul sent Michal to Galim to marry Palti, son of Laish. [ 24 ] David then took wives in Hebron, according to 2 Samuel 3 ; they were Ahinoam the Yizre’elite ; Abigail, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite ; Maacah, the daughter of Talmay, baron of Geshur ; Haggith ; Abital ; and Eglah. Later, David wanted Michal back and Abner, Ish-bosheth ‘s united states army commander, delivered her to David, causing her husband ( Palti ) great grief. [ 25 ] The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his respective wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons : Amnon, by Ahinoam ; Daniel, by Abigail ; Absalom, by Maachah ; Adonijah, by Haggith ; Shephatiah, by Abital ; and Ithream, by Eglah. [ 26 ] By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon. David ‘s sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada. [ 27 ] Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is raped by her stepbrother Amnon. David fails to bring Amnon to department of justice for his trespass of Tamar, because he is his firstborn and he loves him, and so, Absalom ( her full moon brother ) murders Amnon to avenge Tamar. [ 28 ] Although Absalom did avenge his sister ‘s befoulment, ironically he showed himself not to be very a lot different from Amnon ; as Amnon had sought the advice of Jonadab in order to rape Tamar, Absalom had sought the advice of Ahitophel who advised Absalom to have incestuous relations with his father ‘s concubines in order to show all Israel how abominable he was to his father [ 2 Samuel 16:20 ]. Despite the bang-up sins they had committed, David showed grief at the deaths of his sons, weeping doubly for Amnon [ 2 Samuel 13:31–26 ] and weeping seven times for Absalom .
narrative
God is angered when Saul, Israel ‘s king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice [ 29 ] and later disobeys a divine command both to kill all of the Amalekites and to destroy their impound property. [ 30 ] Consequently, God sends prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king alternatively. [ 31 ] After God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, his servants recommend that he send for a man skilled in playing the lyre. A handmaid proposes David, whom the servant describes as “ adept in play, a man of heroism, a warrior, prudent in address, and a homo of thoroughly presence ; and the Lord is with him. ” David enters Saul ‘s service as one of the royal armour-bearers and plays the lyre to soothe the king. [ 32 ] War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in one fight. [ 33 ] David, sent by his founder to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul ‘s army, declares that he can defeat Goliath. [ 34 ] Refusing the king ‘s put up of the royal armor, [ 35 ] he kills goliath with his sling. [ 36 ] Saul inquires the name of the young hero ‘s founder. [ 37 ] Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ( “ What else can he wish but the kingdom ? “ ). [ 38 ] Saul plots his death, but Saul ‘s son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his father ‘s schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath ‘s sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek recourse with King Achish there. Achish ‘s servants or officials question his commitment, and David sees that he is in danger there. [ 39 ] He goes future to the cave of Adullam, where his syndicate joins him. [ 40 ] From there he goes to seek safety with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth, [ 41 ] and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further conflict with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, then David leaves the city in decree to protect its inhabitants. [ 42 ] From there he takes recourse in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph. [ 43 ]
Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. After the people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking recourse in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some reprieve at Ein Gedi. [ 44 ] Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David and enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding, “ to attend to his needs “. David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but this is not his intention : he secretly cuts off a corner of Saul ‘s gown, and when Saul has left the cave he comes out to pay court to Saul as the king and to demonstrate, using the assemble of robe, that he holds no malevolence towards Saul. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor. [ 45 ] A like passage occurs in 1 Samuel 26, when David is able to infiltrate Saul ‘s camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of body of water from his slope while he and his guards lie asleep. In this account, David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not “ stretch out [ his ] pass against the Lord ‘s anointed ”. [ 46 ] Saul confesses that he has been improper to pursue David and blesses him. [ 47 ] In 1 Samuel 27:1–4|NKJV, Saul ceases to pursue David because David took refuge a second base [ 48 ] time with Achish, the Philistine king of Gath. Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the molding between Gath and Judea, from where he leads raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but leads Achish to believe he is attacking the Israelites in Judah, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites. Achish believes that David had become a loyal vassal, but he never wins the believe of the princes or lords of Gath, and at their request Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul. [ 49 ] David returns to Ziklag and saves his wives and the citizens from the Amalekites. [ 50 ] Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle, [ 51 ] and David is anointed king over Judah. [ 52 ] In the north, Saul ‘s son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered. [ 53 ] With the death of Saul ‘s son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel. [ 54 ] He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. [ 55 ] He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, [ 56 ] intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of David ‘s sons. [ 57 ] Nathan besides prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David state, “ your toilet shall be established constantly ”. [ 58 ] David wins extra victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries. His fame increase as a result, earning the praise of figures like king Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer ‘s rival. [ 59 ]
The Prophet Nathan rebukes King David, oil on canvas by , oil on canvas by Eugène Siberdt, 1866–1931 ( Mayfair Gallery, London ) During a siege of the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a womanhood, Bathsheba, bathe and summons her ; she becomes pregnant. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ] The text in the Bible does not explicitly state of matter whether Bathsheba consented to sex. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] [ 66 ] David calls her conserve, Uriah the Hittite, back from the struggle to rest, hoping that he will go home to his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the estrus of conflict. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba. [ 67 ] In answer, Nathan, after trapping the baron in his guilt with a parable that actually described his sine in analogy, prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating “ the sword shall never depart from your house. ” [ vitamin c ] When David acknowledges that he has sinned, [ 70 ] Nathan advises him that his sin is forgive and he will not die, [ 71 ] but the child will. [ 72 ] In fulfillment of Nathan ‘s words, the child yield of the union between David and Bathsheba dies, and another of David ‘s sons, Absalom, fueled by vengeance and lust for power, rebels. [ 73 ] Thanks to Hushai, a friend of David who was ordered to infiltrate Absalom ‘s motor hotel to successfully sabotage his plans, Absalom ‘s forces are routed at the conflict of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, reverse to David ‘s order, he is killed by Joab, the commanding officer of David ‘s united states army. [ 74 ] David laments the death of his darling son : “ O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom ! Would I had died rather of you, O Absalom, my son, my son ! ” [ 75 ] until Joab persuades him to recover from “ the extravagance of his grief ” [ 76 ] and to fulfill his duty to his people. [ 77 ] David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. [ 78 ] When David is old and bedfast, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king. [ 79 ] Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba ‘s son Solomon as king, according to David ‘s earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down. [ 80 ] David dies at the senesce of 70 after reigning for 40 years, [ 81 ] and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take retaliation on his enemies. [ 82 ]
Psalms
The Book of Samuel calls David a nice harp ( lyre ) player [ 84 ] and “ the dessert psalmist of Israel. ” [ five hundred ] Yet, while about half of the Psalms are headed “ A Psalm of David ” ( besides translated as “ to David ” or “ for David ” ) and custom identifies several with specific events in David ‘s life ( for example, Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142 ), [ 86 ] the headings are former additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty. [ 87 ] Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the juncture of his escape from Abimelech ( or King Achish ) by pretending to be insane. [ 88 ] According to the twin narrative in 1 Samuel 21, rather of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to leave, exclaiming, “ Am I so unretentive of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me ? Must this man come into my house ? ” [ 89 ]
Historicity
Tel Dan Stele
The Tel Dan Stele, discovered in 1993, is an inscribe stone erected by Hazael, a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE. It commemorates the king ‘s victory over two enemy kings, and contains the phrase Hebrew : ביתדוד, bytdwd, which most scholars translate as “ House of David ”. other scholars have challenged this read, but it is probable that this is a reference point to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its lineage to a collapse named David .
Mesha Stele
Two epigraphers, André Lemaire and Émile Puech, hypothesised in 1994 that the Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from the 9th century, besides contain the words “ House of David ” at the goal of Line 31, although this was considered as less certain than the citation in the Tel Dan inscription. In May 2019, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na’aman, and Thomas Römer concluded from the newly images that the ruler ‘s identify contained three consonants and started with a bet, which excludes the read “ House of David ” and, in junction with the monarch ‘s city of residence “ Horonaim ” in Moab, makes it likely that the one mentioned is King Balak, a name besides known from the Hebrew Bible. [ 95 ] Later that year, Michael Langlois used high-resolution photograph of both the inscription itself, and the 19th-century original wedge of the then silent integral stele to reaffirm Lemaire ‘s view that wrinkle 31 contains the give voice “ House of David ”. [ 95 ] Replying to Langlois, Na’aman argued that the “ House of David ” reading is unacceptable because the leave sentence social organization is highly rare in West Semitic royal inscriptions .
Bubastite Portal at Karnak
The Triumphal Relief of Shoshenq I near the Bubastite Portal at Karnak, depicting the deity Amun-Re receiving a number of cities and villages conquered by the king in his Near Eastern military campaigns. Besides the two steles, Bible scholar and Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David ‘s name besides appears in a relief of Pharaoh Shoshenq, who is normally identified with Shishak in the Bible. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] The stand-in claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one topographic point as “ Heights of David ”, which was in Southern Judah and the Negev where the Bible says David took safety from Saul. The relief is damaged and rendition is uncertain. [ 99 ]
history of interpretation in the Abrahamic religions
rabbinical judaism
David is an significant figure in Rabbinic Judaism, with many legends around him. According to one tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his church father ‘s sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school. [ 100 ] David ‘s adultery with Bathsheba is interpreted as an opportunity to demonstrate the ability of repentance, and the Talmud states that it was not adultery at all, quoting a jewish commit of disassociate on the eve of conflict. furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder, on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital umbrage by refusing to obey a lead command from the King. [ 101 ] however, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed compunction over his transgressions and sought forgiveness. God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture. [ 102 ] In jewish caption, David ‘s sin with Bathsheba is the punishment for David ‘s excessive self-consciousness who had besought God to lead him into temptation therefore that he might give proof of his constancy as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ( who successfully passed the test ) whose names later were united with God ‘s, while David finally failed through the temptation of a charwoman. [ 100 ] According to midrash, Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David. [ 103 ] besides, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the jewish holiday of Shavuot ( Feast of Weeks ). His piety was said to be so bang-up that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven. [ 104 ]
christendom
The Messiah concept is fundamental in Christianity. in the first place an earthly king govern by divine appointee ( “ the anoint one ”, as the deed Messiah had it ), the “ son of David ” became in the last two centuries BCE the apocalyptic and celestial one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early on Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus “ by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and homo ”. [ 107 ] The early church believed that “ the life of David foreshadowed the life of Christ ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both ; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd ; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are distinctive of the five wounds ; the betrayal by his trust counselor, Ahitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ ‘s Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly distinctive of the future Messiah. ” [ 108 ] In the Middle Ages, “ Charlemagne opinion of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a ‘new David ‘. [ This was ] not in itself a newly mind, but [ one whose ] contented and significance were greatly enlarged by him ”. [ 109 ] western Rite churches ( Lutheran, Roman Catholic ) celebrate his feast day on 29 December or on 6 October, [ 110 ] Eastern-rite on 19 December. [ 111 ] The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the banquet sidereal day of the “ Holy Righteous Prophet and King David ” on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers ( two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord ), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is besides commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord. [ 112 ]
Middle Ages
In european christian polish of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His liveliness was therefore proposed as a valuable submit for study by those aspiring to chivalric condition. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised first through literature, and was thereafter adopted as a frequent national for painters and sculptors. David was considered as a mannequin rule and a symbol of divinely-ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. David was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the mention “ New David ” was used as an honorific reference to these rulers. [ 114 ] The georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed a lineal biological lineage from him. [ 115 ] Likewise, kings of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David ; Charlemagne himself occasionally used the name of David as his pseudonym. [ 114 ]
islam
David ( Arabic : داوود Dā’ūd or Dāwūd ) is an authoritative figure in Islam as one of the major prophets sent by God to guide the Israelites. David is mentioned several times in the Quran with the Arabic list داود, Dāwūd or Dā’ūd, much with his son Solomon. In the Quran David killed Goliath ( Q2:251 ), a giant star soldier in the Philistine army. When David killed Goliath, God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it ( Q38:20 ). David was made God ‘s “ vicegerent on earth ” ( Q38:26 ) and God far gave David fathom judgment ( Q21:78 ; Q37:21–24, Q26 ) arsenic well as the Psalms, regarded as books of godhead wisdom of solomon ( Q4:163 ; Q17:55 ). The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God ( Q21:79 ; Q34:10 ; Q38:18 ), while God made cast-iron easy for David ( Q34:10 ), [ 116 ] God besides instructed David in the art of fashioning chain mail out of cast-iron ( Q21:80 ) ; [ 117 ] this cognition gave David a major advantage over his bronze and casting iron -armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. in concert with Solomon, David gave opinion in a case of damage to the fields ( Q21:78 ) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber ( Q38:21–23 ). Since there is no mention in the Quran of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference book to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative. [ 118 ] Muslim custom and the hadith stress David ‘s readiness in day by day entreaty ampere well as in fasting. [ 119 ] Quran commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David ‘s concise quranic narratives and specifically citation David ‘s endow in singing his psalm a well as his beautiful recitation and song talents. His voice is described as having had a captivating world power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God. [ 120 ]
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historic criticism
literary criticism
biblical literature and archaeological finds are the only sources that attest to David ‘s biography. Some scholars have concluded that this was probably compiled from contemporary records of the 11th and 10th centuries BCE, but that there is no clear diachronic basis for determining the demand date of compilation. [ 121 ] other scholars believe that the Books of Samuel were well composed during the clock of King Josiah at the end of the seventh century BCE, extended during the Babylonian exile ( sixth century BCE ), and substantially complete by about 550 BCE. Old Testament learner Graeme Auld contends that further edit was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel which Saul ‘s servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 “ about surely fixes the date of the story in the Persian or hellenic period ” because a quarter-shekel was known to exist in Hasmonean times. The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the “ history of David ‘s emanation ” [ 123 ] and the “ succession narrative ”. [ 124 ] The Book of Chronicles, which tells the floor from a unlike orient of view, was credibly composed in the time period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel and Kings as its beginning. biblical evidence indicates that David ‘s Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy : it often calls him negid, meaning “ prince ” or “ head ”, quite than melek, meaning “ king ” ; the biblical David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs ( even his army is made up of volunteers ), and his followers are largely related to him and from his humble home-area around Hebron. Beyond this, the entire range of possible interpretations is available. A number of scholars consider the David floor to be a expansive narrative like to King Arthur ‘s legend or Homer ‘s epics, [ 128 ] [ 129 ] whereas others think that such comparisons are questionable. [ 130 ] Others hold that the David narrative is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his interest in murders and regicide. The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles did not aim to record history, but to promote David ‘s reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed. Some other studies of David have been written : baruch Halpern has pictured David as a brutal tyrant, a murderer and a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine baron of Gath ; [ 132 ] Steven McKenzie argues that David came from a affluent family, was “ ambitious and pitiless ” and a tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his own sons. [ 87 ] Joel S. Baden has described him as “ an ambitious, pitiless, flesh-and-blood man who achieved baron by any means necessity, including murder, larceny, bribery, sex, fraudulence, and treachery. [ 133 ] [ page needed ] William G. Dever described him as “ a serial killer ”. Jacob L. Wright has written that the most popular legends about David, including his killing of Goliath, his matter with Bathsheba, and his rule of a United Kingdom of Israel preferably than equitable Judah, are the initiation of those who lived generations after him, in particular those living in the late iranian or hellenic periods. [ 135 ] Isaac Kalimi wrote about the tenth hundred BCE that : “ Almost all that one can say about King Solomon and his time is inescapably based on the biblical text. Nevertheless, here besides one can not constantly offer conclusive proof that a certain biblical passage reflects the actual historic situation in the tenth century BCE, beyond arguing that it is plausible to this or that academic degree. ” [ 12 ]
Archaeologic criticism
Isaac Kalimi wrote in 2018 that : “No contemporaneous extra-biblical source offers any account of the political situation in Israel and Judah during the tenth century BCE, and as we have seen, the archaeological remains themselves cannot provide any unambiguous evidence of events.” [ 12 ] Lester L. Grabbe wrote in 2017 that : “The main question is what kind of settlement Jerusalem was in Iron IIA: was it a minor settlement, perhaps a large village or possibly a citadel but not a city, or was it the capital of a flourishing – or at least an emerging – state? Assessments differ considerably …” [ 136 ] John Haralson Hayes and James Maxwell Miller wrote in 2006 : “On the other hand, if one is not convinced in advance by the biblical profile, then there is nothing in the archaeological evidence itself to suggest that much of consequence was going on in Palestine during the tenth century BCE, and certainly nothing to suggest that Jerusalem was a great political and cultural center.” [ 137 ] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have stated that the archaeological evidence shows that Judah was sparsely inhabit and Jerusalem no more than a small village. The evidence suggested that David ruled merely as a headman over an area which can not be described as a state or as a kingdom, but more as a chiefdom, much smaller and constantly overshadowed by the older and more herculean kingdom of Israel to the north. [ 138 ] They posited that Israel and Judah were not monotheistic at the fourth dimension, and that late seventh-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a unite, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs. They noted a lack of archaeological evidence for David ‘s military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more develop and urbanize Samaria, capital of Israel during the ninth hundred BCE. [ 140 ] [ 142 ] Amihai Mazar has written that the United Monarchy of the tenth hundred BCE can be described as a “ department of state in development ”. [ 143 ] He has besides compared David to Labaya, a Caananite warlord living during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten. While Mazar believes that David reigned over Israel during the eleventh century BCE, he argues that much of the Biblical text is “ literary-legendary nature ”. [ 144 ] According to William G. Dever, the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon are reasonably well attested, but “ most archeologists nowadays would argue that the United Monarchy was not much more than a kind of hill-country chiefdom ”. [ 147 ] Amélie Kuhrt acknowledges that “ there are no imperial inscriptions from the clock time of the unite monarchy ( indeed identical short written material all in all ), and not a single contemporary reference to either David or Solomon, ” but she concludes, “ Against this must be set the evidence for hearty development and growth at several sites, which is credibly related to the one-tenth hundred. ” [ 148 ] Kenneth Kitchen reaches a alike conclusion, arguing that “ the physical archeology of tenth-century Canaan is consistent with the early universe of a coordinated department of state on its terrain. ” [ 149 ] The see of Davidic Jerusalem as a greenwich village has been challenged by Eilat Mazar ‘s mining of the Large Stone Structure and the Stepped Stone Structure in 2005. [ 150 ] Eilat Mazar proposed that these two structures may have been architecturally linked as one unit, and that they go steady bet on to the time of King David. Mazar supports this dating with a number of artifacts ; including pottery, two Phoenician-style bone inlays, a black-and-red imprison, and a radiocarbon dated bone ; dated to or around the tenth century. [ 151 ] Amihai Mazar, Avraham Faust, Nadav Na’aman and William G. Dever have besides argued in party favor of the tenth hundred BCE dating and have responded to challenges against it. [ 143 ] [ 152 ] [ 153 ] [ 154 ] In 2010, archaeologist Eilat Mazar announced the discovery of depart of the ancient city walls around the City of David which she believes date to the tenth century BCE. According to Mazar, this would prove that an organized state did exist in the tenth century. [ 157 ] Scholars such as Israel Finkelstein, Lily Singer-Avitz, Ze’ev Herzog and David Ussishkin do not accept these conclusions. [ 158 ] Finkelstein does not accept the date of these structures to the tenth hundred BCE, based in separate on the fact that later structures on the site penetrated deep into implicit in layers, that the entire area had been excavated in the early twentieth century and then backfilled, that pottery from later periods was found below earlier stratum, and that consequently the finds collected by E. Mazar can not necessarily be considered as retrieved in situ. [ 159 ] Aren Maeir said in 2010 that he has seen no evidence that these structures are from the tenth hundred BCE, and that proof of the universe of a solid, centralize kingdom at that time remains “ tenuous. ” [ 157 ] Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa by archaeologists Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor found an urbanized settlement radiocarbon dated dating to the tenth hundred, which supports the universe of an urbanize kingdom. Following such discovery, the Israel Antiquities Authority stated, “ The excavations at Khirbat Qeiyafa intelligibly reveal an urban society that existed in Judah already in the late eleventh hundred BCE. It can no long be argued that the Kingdom of Judah developed only in the late eighth century BCE or at some other belated date. ” [ 160 ] however, the techniques and interpretations to reach some conclusions related to Khirbet Qeiyafa have been criticized by other scholars, such as Israel Finkelstein and Alexander Fantalkin of Tel Aviv University, who have, alternatively, proposed that the city is to be identified as Philistine. [ 161 ] In 2018, Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir stated that a Canaanite web site at Tel Eton, about 30 miles from Jerusalem, was taken over by a Judahite community by passive assimilation, and transformed from a village into a cardinal town at some charge in the former 11th or early tenth hundred BCE. This transformation used some ashlar blocks in structure, which they argued supports the United Monarchy theory. [ 163 ]
artwork and literature
literature
David mourning the death of Absalom, by Gustave Doré literary works about David include :
Paintings
Sculptures
film
David has been depicted several times in films ; these are some of the best-known :
television
music
musical dramaturgy
- 1997 King David, sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken.
Playing cards
For a considerable period, starting in the fifteenth century and continuing until the 19th, french playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards name taken from history or mythology. In this context, the King of spades was often known as “ David ”. [ 179 ] [ 180 ]
visualize gallery
See besides
Notes
- ^[1] Some scholars propose that David’s rule occupied the middle third of the 10th century BCE.[2] Some scholars think that the biblical description of David reigning for precisely “ forty years ”, like Solomon, is formulaic in nature and not intended as historical, which calls into question our sympathize of the demand length of David ‘s reign and the exact years it traverses.Some scholars propose that David ‘s rule occupied the middle third of the tenth century BCE .
- ^Arabic: داود (traditional spelling), داوود, Dāwūd; Koinē Greek: Δαυΐδ, romanized: Dauíd; Latin: Davidus, David; Ge’ez: ዳዊት, Dawit; Old Armenian: Դաւիթ, Dawitʿ; Church Slavonic: Давíдъ, Davidŭ; possibly meaning “beloved one”.[5] ; possibly meaning “ beloved one ” .
- ^[68] Others say it included his posterity.[69] Some commentators believe this mean during David ‘s lifetime.Others say it included his posterity .
- ^[85] other translations say, “ the hero of Israel ‘s songs, ” “ the favored singer of Israel, ” “ the content psalm writer of Israel, ” and “ Israel ‘s beloved singer of songs. ”
References
Sources
further read
Read more: โบรุสเซีย ดอร์ทมุนด์(Borussia Dortmund)