This article is about the planet. For the Roman deity, see Jupiter ( mythology ). For other uses, see Jupiter ( disambiguation )
Jupiter is the one-fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a accelerator colossus with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the early planets in the Solar System combined, but slenderly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter is the third-brightest natural object in the Earth ‘s night flip after the Moon and Venus. It has been observed since pre-historic times and is named after the Roman deity Jupiter, the king of the gods, because of its observe size.
Reading: Jupiter – Wikipedia
Jupiter is chiefly composed of hydrogen, but helium constitutes one quarter of its multitude and one tenth of its book. It likely has a rocky core of heavier elements, [ 16 ] but like the other elephantine planets, Jupiter lacks a chiseled solid surface. The ongoing contraction of its interior generates heat greater than the amount received from the Sun. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet ‘s shape is that of an oblate spheroid ; it has a little but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer air is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, with turbulence and storms along their interact boundaries. A outstanding consequence of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the seventeenth century, when it was first seen by telescope. Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a mighty magnetosphere. Jupiter ‘s magnetic stern is about 800 million kilometer hanker, covering the entire distance to Saturn ‘s orbit. Jupiter has 80 known moons and possibly many more, [ 6 ] including the four bombastic Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury. Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter, making its closest approach to the satellite in December 1973. [ 17 ] Jupiter has since been explored on a total of occasions by automatic spacecraft, beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979, and former by the Galileo satellite, which arrived at Jupiter in 1995. [ 18 ] In 2007, Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe, which used Jupiter ‘s graveness to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en path to Pluto. The latest probe to visit the satellite, Juno, entered sphere around Jupiter in July 2016. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of the moon Europa. [ 21 ] The global symbol for Jupiter, ♃, [ 22 ] descends from a greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus ( the Greek name for the planet ). [ 23 ]
formation and migration
Jupiter is most likely the oldest planet in the Solar System. [ 24 ] Current models of solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the bamboozle course ; a distance from the early Sun where the temperature is sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. [ 25 ] It inaugural assembled a large solid congress of racial equality before accumulating its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the congress of racial equality must have formed before the solar nebula began to dissipate after 10 million years. formation models suggest Jupiter grew to 20 times the mass of the Earth in under a million years. The orbiting mass created a gap in the disk, thereafter slowly increasing to 50 earth masses in 3–4 million years. [ 24 ] According to the “ fantastic tack hypothesis “, Jupiter would have begun to form at a distance of approximately 3.5 AU. As the young satellite accreted mass, interaction with the gasoline phonograph record orbiting the Sun and orbital resonances with Saturn [ 25 ] caused it to migrate inward. [ 26 ] This would have upset the orbits of what are believed to be super-Earths orbiting close to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would late have begun to migrate inwards excessively, much faster than Jupiter, leading to the two planets becoming locked in a 3:2 beggarly motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU. This in turning would have changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate off from the Sun and out of the inner organization to their current locations. [ 27 ] These migrations would have occurred over an 800,000 year time period, [ 26 ] with all of this happen over a time period of up to 6 million years after Jupiter began to form ( 3 million being a more likely trope ). [ 28 ] This passing would have allowed the constitution of the inner planets from the debris, including Earth. [ 29 ] however, the geological formation timescales of sublunar planets resulting from the fantastic stable gear guess appear inconsistent with the measured planetary constitution. [ 30 ] furthermore, the likelihood that the outbound migration actually occurred in the solar nebula is very low. [ 31 ] In fact, some models predict the formation of Jupiter ‘s analogues whose properties are close to those of the planet at the current epoch. [ 32 ] other models have Jupiter forming at distances much further out, such as 18 AU. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] In fact, based on Jupiter ‘s writing, researchers have made the encase for an initial constitution outside the molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) snowline, which is estimated at 20-30 AU, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] and possibly even outside the argon snowline, which may be a far as 40 AU. Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have migrated inwards to its current location. This inward migration would have occurred over a roughly 700,000 year time period, [ 33 ] [ 34 ] during an era approximately 2–3 million years after the satellite began to form. Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would besides have migrated inwards .
physical characteristics
Jupiter is one of the two boast giants, being primarily composed of boast and melted quite than solid matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km ( 88,846 security service ) at its equator. [ 37 ] The median concentration of Jupiter, 1.326 g/cm3, is the second highest of the elephantine planets, but lower than those of the four sublunar planets. [ 38 ]
composition
Jupiter ‘s upper atmosphere is about 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by bulk. Since helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter ‘s air is approximately 75 % hydrogen and 24 % helium by batch, with the remaining one percentage dwell of other elements. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon -based compounds. There are besides fractional amounts of carbon paper, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulphur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia water. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have besides been found. [ 39 ] The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71 % hydrogen, 24 % helium, and 5 % other elements. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close up to the theoretical composition of the aboriginal solar nebula. neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a one-tenth equally abundant as in the Sun. [ 42 ] Helium is besides depleted to about 80 % of the Sun ‘s helium composing. This depletion is a resultant role of precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets deep in the inside of the satellite. [ 43 ] Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other colossus planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the adjacent most abundant elements, including oxygen, carbon paper, nitrogen, and sulfur. [ 44 ] As their explosive compounds are chiefly in ice form, they are called ice rink giants .
Mass and size
Jupiter ‘s diameter is one order of magnitude smaller ( ×0.10045 ) than that of the Sun, and one order of magnitude larger ( ×10.9733 ) than that of Earth. The Great Red Spot is roughly the lapp size as earth. Jupiter ‘s mass is 2.5 times that of all the early planets in the Solar System combined—this is then massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun ‘s surface at 1.068 solar radius from the Sun ‘s centre. [ 45 ] Jupiter is much larger than land and well less dense : its book is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. [ 7 ] [ 46 ] Jupiter ‘s radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun, [ 47 ] and its batch is one thousandth the batch of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar. [ 48 ] A “ Jupiter mass “ ( MJ or MJup ) is frequently used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarf. For model, the extrasolar satellite HD 209458 b has a aggregate of 0.69 MJ, while Kappa Andromedae bacillus has a mass of 12.8 MJ. [ 49 ] theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present, it would shrink. [ 50 ] For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, and above 160 % [ 50 ] of the current mass the interior would become sol much more compress under the increase pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing sum of topic. As a solution, Jupiter is thought to have about as big a diameter as a planet of its constitution and evolutionary history can achieve. [ 51 ] The process of far shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable leading ignition was achieved, as in high-mass embrown dwarf having about 50 Jupiter masses. [ 52 ] Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a asterisk, the smallest red gnome is only about 30 percentage larger in spoke than Jupiter. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more hotness than it receives from the Sun ; the sum of hotness produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation sickness it receives. [ 55 ] This extra heat is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism through contraction. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm/yr. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] When formed, Jupiter was blistering and was about doubly its current diameter. [ 58 ]
Internal structure
Diagram of Jupiter, its inner, surface features, rings, and inner moons. Before the early twenty-first century, most scientists expected Jupiter to either consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen ( with some helium ) extending outward to about 80 % of the radius of the planet, [ 59 ] and an out air consisting predominantly of molecular hydrogen, [ 57 ] or possibly to have no effect at all, consisting alternatively of dense and dense fluid ( predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen ) all the way to the center, depending on whether the planet accreted first as a solid body or collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary magnetic disk. When the Juno deputation arrived in July 2016, [ 19 ] it found that Jupiter has a very diffuse effect that mixes into its cape. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] A potential induce is an shock from a planet of about ten-spot Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter ‘s constitution, which would have disrupted an in the first place solid Jovian core. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] It is estimated that the core is 30–50 % of the planet ‘s radius, and contains heavy elements 7–25 times the mass of Earth. [ 64 ] Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent inside standard atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the press and temperature are above molecular hydrogen ‘s critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of only 33 K. [ 65 ] In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluent department of state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as natural gas extending down from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km, [ 55 ] and as liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of fluent hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] physically, there is no net boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hot and dense as depth increases. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper air. [ 43 ] [ 71 ] Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km ( 11,000 kilometer below the cloudtops ) and merge again at 50,000 kilometer ( 22,000 km beneath the defile ). [ 72 ] Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, angstrom well as on Saturn [ 73 ] and the methamphetamine giants Uranus and Neptune. [ 74 ] The temperature and pressure at heart Jupiter increase steadily inward, this is observed in microwave discharge and required because the heat of formation can only escape by convection. At the press grade of 10 bars ( 1 MPa ), the temperature is around 340 K ( 67 °C ; 152 °F ). The hydrogen is always supercritical ( that is, it never encounters a first-order phase transition ) even as it changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid at around 100–200 GPa, where the temperature is possibly 5,000 K ( 4,730 °C ; 8,540 °F ). The temperature of Jupiter ‘s diluted core is estimated at around 20,000 K ( 19,700 °C ; 35,500 °F ) or more with an estimate pressure of around 4,500 GPa. [ 75 ]
atmosphere
jupiter has the deepest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, spanning over 5,000 km ( 3,000 mi ) in altitude. [ 76 ] [ 77 ]
overcast layers
South polar horizon of Jupiter
Enhanced color view of Jupiter ‘s southerly storms Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia water crystals, and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are in the tropopause and are in bands of unlike latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and dark belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second ( 360 kilometers per hour ; 220 miles per hour ) are common in zonal jet streams. [ 78 ] The zones have been observed to vary in width, discolor and intensity from year to class, but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to name them. [ 46 ] The cloud layer is about 50 km ( 31 mi ) deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds : a thickly lower deck and a thin clean region. There may besides be a thin level of water clouds underlying the ammonia water layer. Supporting the bearing of water clouds are the flashes of lightning detected in the standard atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times deoxyadenosine monophosphate knock-down as lightning on Earth. [ 79 ] The water cloud are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the lapp way as planetary thunderstorms, driven by the estrus rising from the interior. [ 80 ] The Juno mission revealed the presence of “ shallow lightning ” which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. [ 81 ] These discharges carry “ mushballs ” of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall trench into the atmosphere. [ 82 ] Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter ‘s upper air, bright flashes of lightly that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as “ elves ” or “ sprites ” and appear bluing or pink due to the hydrogen. [ 83 ] [ 84 ]
Voyager 1, showing the motion of atmospheric bands and circulation of the Great Red Spot. Recorded over 32 days with one photograph taken every 10 hours (once per Jovian day). See Time-lapse sequence from the approach of, showing the motion of atmospheric bands and circulation of the Great Red Spot. Recorded over 32 days with one photograph taken every 10 hours ( once per Jovian day ). See full size video The orange and brown colours in the cloud of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The claim constitution remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be morning star, sulphur or possibly hydrocarbons. [ 55 ] [ 85 ] These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warm lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia water that masks out these lower clouds from view. [ 86 ] Jupiter ‘s moo axial lean means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than the planet ‘s equatorial region. convection within the interior of the satellite transports energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer. [ 46 ]
Great Red Spot and early vortices
The best know sport of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, [ 87 ] a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° confederacy of the equator. It is known to have existed since at least 1831, [ 88 ] and possibly since 1665. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] Images by the hubble Space Telescope have shown adenine many as two “ red spots ” adjacent to the Great Red Spot. [ 91 ] [ 92 ] The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 curium or larger. [ 93 ] The ellipse object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. [ 94 ] The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km ( 5 mile ) above the surrounding cloudtops. [ 95 ] The Spot ‘s composing and the reference of its bolshevik coloring material stay unsealed, although photodissociated ammonia water reacting with acetylene is a robust candidate to explain the color. [ 96 ]
Close up of The Great Red Spot, Taken by the Juno spacecraft, in April 2018. The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. [ 97 ] Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. [ 98 ] however, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. initial observations in the former 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km ( 25,500 nautical mile ) across. By the clock of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km ( 14,500 secret intelligence service ) and a width of approximately 13,000 km ( 8,000 mi ). [ 99 ] Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20,950 km ( 13,020 mi ), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 kilometer ( 11,130 security service ). As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km ( 10,250 by 6,800 mi ), [ 99 ] and was decreasing in duration by about 930 km ( 580 michigan ) per class. [ 97 ] [ 100 ] In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission utilized two scientific instruments to measure the depth of the Great Red Spot putting it at around 300 – 500 kilometer ( 186 -310 miles ) deep. [ 101 ] Juno missions show that there are respective pivotal cyclone groups at Jupiter ‘s poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a boastfully one in the center and eight others around it, while its southerly counterpart besides consists of a center whirl but is surrounded by five large storms and a one smaller one. [ 102 ] [ better source needed ] These polar structures are caused by the turbulence in Jupiter ‘s atmosphere and can be compared with the hexagon at Saturn ‘s north pole .
[103] The Great Red Spot is decreasing in size ( May 15, 2014 ) In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is like in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white egg-shaped storms merged to form a individual feature—these three smaller blank ovals were beginning observed in 1938. The unify feature was named Oval BA and has been nicknamed “ Red Spot Junior. ” It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red. [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] In April 2017, a “ Great Cold Spot ” was discovered in Jupiter ‘s thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 kilometer ( 15,000 mi ) across, 12,000 kilometer ( 7,500 secret intelligence service ) wide, and 200 °C ( 360 °F ) cool than surrounding substantial. While this spot changes form and intensity over the inadequate term, it has maintained its cosmopolitan position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a colossus whirlpool exchangeable to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth ‘s thermosphere. Interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the planet ‘s solid charismatic field probably resulted in redistribution of heat flow, forming the Spot. [ 107 ]
magnetosphere
Jupiter ‘s magnetic field is fourteen times stronger than Earth ‘s, ranging from 4.2 gauss ( 0.42 meitnerium ) at the equator to 10–14 gauss ( 1.0–1.4 metric ton ) at the poles, making it the strongest in the Solar System ( except for sunspots ). [ 86 ] This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents —swirling movements of conducting materials—within the liquid metallic hydrogen core. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulphur dioxide, forming a gasoline torus along the daydream ‘s orbit. The accelerator is ionised in the magnetosphere, producing sulphur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter ‘s equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing contortion of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature that produces bursts in the scope of 0.6–30 MHz which are detectable from earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] At approximately 75 Jupiter radius from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow traumatize. Surrounding Jupiter ‘s magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath —a region between it and the bow shock. The solar hoist interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter ‘s lee side and extending it outbound until it about reaches the sphere of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all scope within the magnetosphere, which protects them from the solar wind. [ 55 ] The magnetosphere of Jupiter is creditworthy for intense episodes of radio receiver emission from the satellite ‘s arctic regions. volcanic bodily process on Jupiter ‘s moonlight Io injects natural gas into Jupiter ‘s magnetosphere, producing a torus of particles about the planet. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionize count into the arctic regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio receiver waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a conic surface. When earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the solar radio output. [ 110 ]
orb and rotation
Jupiter ( red ) completes one sphere of the Sun ( concentrate ) for every 11.86 orbits by Earth ( gloomy )
A rotation time-lapse of Jupiter over 3 hours jupiter is the entirely planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7 % of the Sun ‘s radius. [ 111 ] The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometer ( about 5.2 times the median distance between Earth and the Sun, or 5.2 AU ) and it completes an sphere every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital menstruation of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance. [ 112 ] The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.31° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its sphere is 0.048, Jupiter is slenderly over 75 million kilometer nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion. [ 7 ] The axial cant of Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, therefore its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars. [ 113 ] Jupiter ‘s rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System ‘s planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slenderly less than ten hours ; this creates an equatorial start easily seen through an amateurish telescope. The satellite is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,275 kilometer ( 5,763 michigan ) longer than the diametric diameter. [ 70 ] Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergo differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter ‘s diametric atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial air ; three systems are used as frames of reference, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. system I applies to latitudes from 10° N to 10° S ; its period is the planet ‘s shortest, at 9h 50m 30.0s. System II applies at all latitudes north and south of these ; its period is 9h 55m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet ‘s magnetosphere ; its period is Jupiter ‘s official rotation. [ 114 ]
observation
junction of Jupiter and the Moon
The retrograde apparent motion of an out satellite is caused by its relative placement with esteem to Earth Jupiter is normally the fourth brightest object in the flip ( after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus ) ; [ 86 ] at opposition Mars can appear bright than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter ‘s situation with esteem to the Earth, it can vary in ocular magnitude from angstrom bright as −2.94 [ 12 ] at opposition down to [ 12 ] −1.66 during concurrence with the Sun. The average apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. [ 12 ] The angular diameter of Jupiter similarly varies from 50.1 to 29.8 arc seconds. [ 7 ] favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through perihelion, an event that occurs once per eye socket. [ 115 ] Because the sphere of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5° ; frankincense, Jupiter constantly appears about amply illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was alone during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. [ 116 ] A small telescope will normally show Jupiter ‘s four galilean moons and the outstanding cloud belts across Jupiter ‘s atmosphere. [ 117 ] A large telescope will show Jupiter ‘s Great Red Spot when it faces Earth. [ 118 ]
history of inquiry and exploration
Pre-telescopic research
Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (?) model in theof the longitudinal motion of Jupiter ( ☉ ) relative to Earth ( ? ) observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the babylonian astronomers of the 7th or eighth century BC. [ 119 ] The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the “ Suì star ” ( Suìxīng 歲星 ) and established their motorbike of 12 earthly branches based on its approximate number of years ; the chinese terminology hush uses its appoint ( simplified as 歲 ) when referring to years of senesce. By the fourth hundred BC, these observations had developed into the taiwanese zodiac, [ 120 ] with each year associated with a Tai Sui headliner and deity controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter ‘s placement in the night flip ; these beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac ‘s twelve animals, nowadays frequently popularly assumed to be related to the arrival of the animals before Buddha. The chinese historian xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient chinese astronomer, reported a small star “ in confederation ” with the planet, [ 121 ] which may indicate a sight of one of Jupiter ‘s moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo ‘s discovery by closely two millennium. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] A 2016 wallpaper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BCE for integrating the speed of Jupiter along the ecliptic. [ 124 ] In his second hundred employment the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter ‘s motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. [ 125 ]
Ground-based telescope research
In 1610, italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter ( immediately known as the Galilean moons ) using a telescope ; thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons early than Earth ‘s. One day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a reserve until 1614. [ 126 ] It was Marius ‘s names for the major moons, however, that stick : Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. These findings were the first discovery of celestial apparent motion not apparently centred on Earth. The discovery was a major point in favor of Copernicus ‘ heliocentric hypothesis of the motions of the planets ; Galileo ‘s blunt support of the Copernican hypothesis led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition. [ 127 ] During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colorful bands, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate the planet ‘s rotation period. [ 128 ] In 1690 Cassini noticed that the air undergo differential rotation. [ 55 ] The Great Red Spot may have been observed american samoa early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest know drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831. [ 129 ] The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on respective occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite blatant in 1878. It was recorded as languish again in 1883 and at the start of the twentieth hundred. [ 130 ] Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter ‘s moons, allowing predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the satellite. By the 1670s, it was observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes late than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously ( a termination that Cassini had earlier rejected ), [ 41 ] and this time discrepancy was used to estimate the travel rapidly of light. [ 131 ] In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a one-fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch ( 910 millimeter ) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was former named Amalthea. [ 132 ] It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by ocular notice. [ 133 ] An extra eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979. [ d ]
In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia water and methane in the spectrum of Jupiter. [ 134 ] Three durable anticyclonic features termed white ovals were observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as discriminate features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each early but never merging. ultimately, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third gear in 2000, becoming Oval BA. [ 135 ]
Radiotelescope research
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin detected bursts of radio signals coming from Jupiter at 22.2 MHz. [ 55 ] The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to refine the rotation pace. radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms : retentive bursts ( or L-bursts ) lasting up to several seconds, and short circuit bursts ( or S-bursts ) lasting less than a one-hundredth of a second. [ 136 ] Scientists discovered that there are three forms of radio receiver signals transmitted from jupiter :
- Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter’s magnetic field.[137]
- Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[55] The origin of this signal was a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter’s equator. This signal is caused by cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter’s magnetic field.[138]
- Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[55]
exploration
Since 1973, a count of automated spacecraft have visited Jupiter, most notably the Pioneer 10 outer space probe, the first base spacecraft to get close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomenon. [ 139 ] [ 140 ] Flights to planets within the solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in speed of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer eye socket from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s, [ 141 ] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth sphere. [ 142 ] Gravity assists through global flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration. [ 143 ]
Flyby missions
Beginning in 1973, respective spacecraft have performed erratic flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter ‘s atmosphere and respective of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter ‘s diameter and the come of arctic flatten. [ 46 ] [ 145 ] Six years late, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understand of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter ‘s rings. They besides confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Red Spot had changed hue since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionize atoms was discovered along Io ‘s orbital way, and volcanoes were found on the moon ‘s surface, some in the summons of erupting. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the nox side air. [ 46 ] [ 146 ] The adjacent deputation to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby tactic to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this base on balls, the spacecraft studied Jupiter ‘s magnetosphere. Ulysses has no cameras so no images were taken. A moment flyby six years late was at a much greater outdistance. [ 144 ] In 2000, the Cassini probe fly by Jupiter on its means to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images. [ 147 ] The New Horizons probe fly by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity serve en road to Pluto. [ 148 ] The probe ‘s cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail, vitamin a well as making long-distance observations of the out moons Himalia and Elara. [ 149 ]
Galileo mission
Cassini Jupiter as seen by the space probe The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo probe, which entered orb on December 7, 1995. [ 51 ] It orbited the satellite for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft besides witnessed the impingement of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994, giving a unique vantage point for the consequence. Its primitively designed capacity was limited by the fail deployment of its high-gain radio receiver antenna, although across-the-board information was inactive gained about the jovian system from Galileo. [ 150 ] A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter ‘s air on December 7. [ 51 ] It parachuted through 150 km ( 93 secret intelligence service ) of the standard atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h ( 1600 miles per hour ) [ 51 ] and collected data for 57.6 minutes before the sign was lost at a pressure of about 23 atmospheres and a temperature of 153 °C. [ 151 ] It melted thereafter, and possibly vapourised. The Galileo satellite itself experienced a more rapid version of the lapp fortune when it was measuredly steered into the planet on September 21, 2003, at a speed of over 50 km/s to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbor life. [ 150 ] Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 % of Jupiter ‘s atmosphere. [ 51 ] The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C ( 570 °F ) and the windspeed measured more than 644 kilometers per hour ( > 400 miles per hour ) before the probes vapourised. [ 51 ]
Juno mission
(September 2018) A photograph of Jupiter taken by the Juno spacecraft, at the end of a finale flyby ( September 2018 )
Juno spacecraft
(February 12, 2019) jupiter, as seen by thespacecraft ( February 12, 2019 ) NASA ‘s Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, and was expected to complete thirty-seven orbits over the future twenty months. [ 19 ] The mission plan called for Juno to study the planet in contingent from a arctic sphere. [ 152 ] On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its beginning flyover of Jupiter and sent back the first ever images of Jupiter ‘s north pole. [ 153 ] Juno would complete 12 skill orbits before the goal of its budgeted deputation design, ending July 2018. [ 154 ] In June of that class, NASA extended the deputation operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys : one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io. [ 155 ] [ 156 ] When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a control deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter ‘s atmosphere. During the deputation, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiotherapy from Jupiter ‘s magnetosphere, which may cause future failure of certain instruments and risk collision with Jupiter ‘s moons. [ 157 ] [ 158 ]
Canceled missions and future plans
There has been bang-up interest in studying Jupiter ‘s icy moons in detail because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Funding difficulties have delayed progress. NASA ‘s JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) was cancelled in 2005. [ 159 ] A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA / ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a probationary launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. [ 160 ] however, ESA had formally ended the partnership by April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. alternatively, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision choice. [ 161 ] These plans were realized as the european Space Agency ‘s Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ), due to launch in 2023, [ 162 ] followed by NASA ‘s Europa Clipper mission, scheduled for plunge in 2024. [ 163 ] early proposed missions include the chinese National Space Administration ‘s Interstellar Express, a pair of probes to launch in 2024 that would use Jupiter ‘s gravity to explore either end of the heliosphere, and NASA ‘s Trident, which would launch in 2025 and use Jupiter ‘s gravity to bend the spacecraft on a path to explore Neptune ‘s moon Triton .
Moons
Jupiter has 80 known natural satellites. [ 6 ] [ 164 ] Of these, 60 are less than 10 km in diameter. [ 165 ] The four largest moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, jointly known as the “ Galilean moons “, and are visible from earth with binoculars on a clear night. [ 166 ]
galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of three of them ( Io, Europa, and Ganymede ) form a traffic pattern known as a Laplace rapport ; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes precisely two orbits and Ganymede makes precisely one. This rapport causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptic shapes, because each moonlight receives an extra tug from its neighbors at the same point in every scope it makes. The tidal impel from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularise their orbits. [ 167 ] The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flex of the three moons ‘ shapes, with Jupiter ‘s graveness stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. This tidal flex heats the moons ‘ interiors by friction. [ 168 ] This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic natural process of Io ( which is discipline to the strongest tidal forces ), [ 168 ] and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa ‘s surface, which indicates holocene resurface of the moon ‘s outside. [ 169 ]
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classification
Jupiter ‘s moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on commonalty of their orbital elements. [ 170 ] This movie has been complicated by the discovery of numerous modest out moons since 1999. Jupiter ‘s moons are presently divided into several different groups, although there are respective moons which are not depart of any group. [ 171 ] The eight inmost regular moons, which have closely circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter ‘s equator, are thought to have formed aboard Jupiter, whilst the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of get asteroids. atypical moons that belong to a group partake alike orbital elements and thus may have a common origin, possibly as a larger moon or captured body that broke up. [ 172 ] [ 173 ]
planetal rings
Jupiter has a faint planetal ring arrangement composed of three main segments : an inner torus of particles known as the ring, a relatively bright main call, and an forbidden gossamer band. [ 177 ] These rings appear to be made of scatter, preferably than frost as with Saturn ‘s rings. [ 55 ] The main gang is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis. corporeal that would normally fall rear to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of its solid gravitational determine. The scope of the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by extra impacts. [ 178 ] In a like way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the cold diaphanous ring. [ 178 ] There is besides tell of a rocky ring string along Amalthea ‘s scope which may consist of collisional debris from that moon. [ 179 ]
interaction with the Solar System
Along with the Sun, the gravitational charm of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system ‘s planets lie closer to Jupiter ‘s orbital plane than the Sun ‘s equatorial flat ( Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun ‘s equator in orbital tilt ). The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid knock are by and large caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment event in the inner Solar System ‘s history. [ 180 ] In addition to its moons, Jupiter ‘s gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled into the regions of the Lagrangian points preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan “ camps ” to commemorate the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906 ; since then more than two thousand have been discovered. [ 181 ] The largest is 624 Hektor. [ 182 ] Most short-period comets belong to the Jupiter family—defined as comets with semi-major axes smaller than Jupiter ‘s. Jupiter kin comets are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the sphere of Neptune. During close up encounters with Jupiter their orbits are perturbed into a smaller period and then circularised by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter. [ 183 ] due to the magnitude of Jupiter ‘s mass, the center of graveness between it and the Sun lies fair above the Sun ‘s surface, the alone satellite in the Solar System for which this is true. [ 184 ] [ 185 ]
Impacts
Jupiter has been called the Solar System ‘s void cleaner [ 187 ] because of its huge gravity well and location near the inner solar System there are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on the Solar System ‘s other planets. [ 188 ] It was thought that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombing. [ 51 ] however, late calculator simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a web decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its graveness perturbs their orbits in roughly american samoa frequently as it accretes or ejects them. [ 189 ] This subject remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper knock while others think that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud. [ 190 ] Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth. [ 51 ] In July 1994 the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with the Jupiter. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] The event was closely observed by a wide range observatories around the world, including hubble Space Telescope and Galilio probe. [ 193 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] [ 196 ] The event was wide covered by media. [ 197 ] A 1997 sketch of early astronomic records and drawings suggested that a certain dark surface sport discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scratch. The survey initially produced eight more campaigner sites as likely affect observations that he and others had recorded between 1664 and 1839. It was later determined, however, that these candidate sites had fiddling or no hypothesis of being the results of the proposed impacts. [ 198 ]
mythology
Liber Astronomiae Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 version of Guido Bonatti ‘s The satellite Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the nox flip and can occasionally be seen in the day when the Sun is broken. [ 199 ] To the Babylonians, this object represented their god Marduk. They used Jupiter ‘s roughly 12-year orb along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac. [ 46 ] [ 200 ] The Romans called it “ the asterisk of Jupiter “ ( Iuppiter Stella ), as they believed it to be sacred to the principal god of Roman mythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound * Dyēu-pəter ( nominative : * Dyēus-pətēr, meaning “ Father Sky-God ”, or “ Father Day-God ” ). [ 201 ] In twist, Jupiter was the counterpart to the fabulous Greek Zeus ( Ζεύς ), besides referred to as Dias ( Δίας ), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek. [ 202 ] The ancient Greeks knew the satellite as Phaethon ( Φαέθων ), meaning “ shining one ” or “ blaze star topology ”. [ 203 ] [ 204 ] As sovereign idol of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and appropriately called the idol of light and flip. The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the etymon zeno-, used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic. [ e ] Jovian is the adjectival shape of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean “ glad ” or “ gay ”, moods ascribed to Jupiter ‘s astrological charm. [ 205 ] In Germanic mythology, Jupiter is equated to Thor, whence the English identify Thursday for the Roman dies Jovis. [ 206 ] In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it “ Guru “, which literally means the “ Heavy one ”. [ 207 ] In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren ( of unsealed meaning ) and yultuz ( “ ace ” ). There are many theories about the mean of eren. These peoples calculated the period of the orb of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz ‘s movements on the flip. [ 208 ] The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and japanese called it the “ wood star ” ( chinese : 木星 ; pinyin : mùxīng ), based on the chinese Five Elements. [ 209 ] [ 210 ] [ 211 ]
gallery
The angry air of Jupiter, captured by the Wide Field Camera 3 on the hubble Space Telescope in infrared .
hubble visible view of Jupiter
hubble Ultraviolet View of Jupiter [ 212 ]
This image of Jupiter and Europa, taken by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope on 25 August 2020, was captured when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth [ 213 ]
See besides
Notes
References
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